The Classic Wanderer

Explain Two Reasons Why Women And Minorities Were Excluded From Psychology?

• Sabrina Sarro
• 05.05.2023
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HISTORICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards Responses may vary but should include some or all of the following information: Women and minorities were excluded from early psychology for a variety of reasons. One reason that women were excluded was due to social expectations.

1. Women were expected to conform to a female role that entailed learning domestic skills, getting married, and having children.
2. Another reason why women and minorities were excluded is because of limited academic opportunities.
3. Numerous schools did not allow the admittance of women or minorities into their graduate programs.

Which of the following is not a way in which psychological research can be culturally biased?The questions that are asked may only concern issues and interests relevant to one culture.The participants used in the research are representative of several cultural groups.The researcher’s culture can lead to the misinterpretation of the behavior of another culture.

1. The tasks used during the research may be foreign to certain cultural groups.
2. Responses may vary but should include some or all of the following information: Mary Whiton Calkins was a leading American psychologist who is best known for two things: being the first female president of the American Psychological Association and for being denied a doctoral degree at Harvard because of her gender.

However, she made significant contributions to psychology that include establishing the first psychology laboratory at a women’s college, inventing the paired associate technique to study memory, and developing a theory of self-psychology, which makes the self the primary focus of psychology.

1. Inez Beverly Prosser was the first African American woman to receive a doctoral degree in psychology in the US.
2. She studied the academic development of children in integrated and segregated schools.
3. She also published many articles on teaching English.
4. Responses may vary but should include some or all of the following information: The predominance of white, middle-class males in early psychology caused some research to be biased.

Some research was gender biased or androcentric, which means that research was viewed from a male perspective and used as the basis to study cognitive processes and behavior. One example of androcentrism is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which he developed by only studying males.

1. Some early psychological research was also racially biased, affecting the topics researched and the interpretation of research findings.
2. For example, R.
3. Meade Bache conducted research on the reaction times across three racial groups and interpreted that Caucasians have the slowest reaction times because they’re less primitive and more intellectual and contemplative than other racial groups.

Responses may vary but should include some or all of the following information: The doll experiment was conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark. Their experiment suggested that, due to segregation, African American children preferred white dolls, attributed more positive characteristics to white dolls, and felt inferior.

Why women and minorities were excluded from psychology?

Women and minorities were excluded from psychology because of expectations of women, such as staying home, having children, and learning domestic skills, and school segregation which led students to feel inferior.

Which of the following was a barrier to women entering the field of psychology in the 19th and early 20th centuries?

Barriers Women Faced in Early Psychology Many women who entered psychology in those early years (1870s-1920s) met powerful prejudice and barriers. Some were denied enrollment in universities; others had their duly earned degrees delayed or denied; others were refused academic positions; many had little success in obtaining research positions.

• At that time, it was a generally accepted, unquestioned belief that women, compared with men, were less intelligent, less physically able, and more emotionally fragile and unpredictable.
• Therefore, they would presumably not be able to withstand the intellectual, emotion, and physical demands of academia.

Much of the male certainty of their superiority stemmed from the limited variability hypothesis. This hypothesis was a misapplication of Darwin’s observation that males in some species had a wider range of physical development than did their female counterparts.

• From this, the notion developed-with no substantiating research data-that women as a group have less variability compared with men.
• That is, women tend to hover around the means of any characteristic, such as intelligence, strength, emotional control, reasoning, and so on.
• Therefore, they do not range as high intellectually as do men, and thus could not readily master higher education.

Furthermore, they could not deal with the stresses of intense education, because they were not as strong emotionally or physically as men. These notions were challenged-indeed found to be false-by the pioneering research of Helen Thompson Wooley (published in 1900) and Leta Stetter Hollingworth (published about 1914).

1. Their results were not well received by male psychologists.
2. Some psychologists, so certain that what the women had found could not be true, went so far as to accuse them of distorting the data.
3. The major universities, where the most significant activity in psychology was taking place, were denied to women.

As a result, many of those women who managed to obtain advanced degrees turned to other settings, where they were more readily accepted. Those settings included hospitals, clinics, schools, and private industry. There, female psychologists made important contributions in applied psychology, such as in psychological testing, education, counseling, and clinical work.

Several women made significant contributions to the American psychological testing movement of the 1920s and 1930s (e.g., Florence Goodenough, Maude Merrill James, Psyche Cattell, and Anne Anastasi). Thus, the uniquely American applied psychology that grew from the American Functionalist movement provided opportunities for women who were shut out of academia because of male bias.

It is an interesting historical fact that such bias was so strong in higher education, while other areas of professional opportunity were relatively open to women. However, even in those early years, while some major universities (e.g., Columbia, Harvard, Johns Hopkins) were denying opportunities for women, others, such as Cornell University, were admitting women into graduate study and granting them advanced degrees.

1. At Cornell, Tichener, one of the most renowned psychologists, held quite advanced views about women.
2. More than a third of the 56 doctorates earned under Tichenener were earned by women (Schultz & Schultz, 2008).
3. Margaret Floy Washburn was Tichener’s first graduate student, and she became the first woman ever to earn a doctorate in psychology.

To illustrate the depth of the problem, however, Titchener, even with his advanced views, did not allow women to attend his prestigious weekly “experimentalists” meetings. His stated reason was that women would be distressed at the intense cigar smoke from the men, which prompted one woman psychologist to take up cigar smoking.

In the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, women were treated badly, but children fared even worse. It was the time of the industrial revolution, and children as young as 5 were being forced into working in factories for 10 hours a day 6 days a week (and that was already a vast improvement over the early years of the 19th Century!).

Children had virtually no protective legislation, and industry fought hard to prevent legislation on working conditions, hours, minimum age, and wages for children. It is understandable that women psychologists, such as Helen Wooley, would become advocates of improvement, not only for women, but also for children.

Barriers Women Faced in Early Psychology

What is one of the primary reasons that members of ethnic minority groups were historically underrepresented in psychological research?

What is one of the primary reasons that members of ethnic minority groups were historically underrepresented in psychological research? Researchers frequently used college students as participants, thus excluding groups who were less likely to attend college.

What role did women play in the early development of psychology?

Tables of Contents

1. Women in Psychology: Overview
2. History of Women in Psychology
   • Untold Stories of Women in Psychology
   • Influential Women in Psychology
   • Women of Color in Psychology
3. How Women in Psychology Have Changed the Field

Women earned 79% of the bachelor’s degrees in psychology awarded in the United States in 2018-2019, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). But a quick look at many lists of pioneers in psychology includes few — if any — women.

• A closer examination of the history of psychology reveals that the important role of women in the field isn’t new, however.
• Women helped lead the way in work on such prominent psychological concepts as psychoanalysis, attachment theory, racial identity, and self-esteem.
• The history of women in psychology dates back to at least the 1890s, when the first woman completed a doctoral program in psychology.

Because of her gender, Mary Whiton Calkins didn’t receive a degree, but she became a critical figure in the discipline — and she helped set the stage for the important role that women would go on to play in the study and practice of psychology.

What are the three factors of minority influence psychology?

Minority Influence – Consistency and Commitment Social influence can occur when a minority (small group) changes the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of a majority; this is known as minority influence, Psychologists have identified different factors that can enhance the effectiveness of a minority, including: consistency, commitment and flexibility.

One of the most influential experiments of minority influence was conducted by Moscovici (1969). He wanted to see if a consistent minority could influence a majority to give an incorrect answer, in a colour perception task. His sample consisted of 172 female participants who were told that they were taking part in a colour perception task.

The participants were placed in groups of six and shown 36 slides, which were all varying shades of blue. The participants had state out loud the colour of each slide. Two of the six participants were confederates and in one condition (consistent) the two confederates said that all 36 slides were green; in the second condition (inconsistent) the confederates said that 24 of the slides were green and 12 were blue.

Moscovici found that in the consistent condition, the real participants agreed on 8.2% of the trials, whereas in the inconsistent condition, the real participants only agreed on 1.25% of the trials. This shows that a consistent minority is 6.95% more effective than an inconsistent minority and that consistency is an important factor in minority influence.

Note: It is important to note that consistency and commitment are linked. If a minority is consistent in their view then they also are showing commitment to their cause. Another way a minority can show commitment is through sacrifices, which will be examined in the next section Evaluation: Moscovici used a bias sample of 172 female participants from America.

As a result, we are unable to generalise the results to other populations, for example male participants, and we cannot conclude that male participants would respond to minority influence in the same way. Furthermore, research often suggests that females are more likely to conform and therefore further research is required to determine the effect of minority influence on male participants.

Moscovici has also been criticised for deceiving his participants, as participants were told that they were taking part in a colour perception test. This also means that Moscovici did not gain fully informed consent. Although it is seen as unethical to deceive participants, Moscovici’s experiment required deception in order to achieve valid results.

What factors affect minority influence psychology?

How does the minority change the majority view? – Moscovici argues that majority influence tends to be based on public compliance. It is likely to be a case of normative social influence. In this respect, the power of numbers is important – the majority has the power to reward and punish with approval and disapproval.

• And because of this, there is pressure on minorities to conform.
• Since majorities are often unconcerned about what minorities think about them, minority influence is rarely based on normative social influence.
• Instead, it is usually based on informational social influence – providing the majority with new ideas and new information, which leads them to re-examine their views.

In this respect, minority influence involves private acceptance (i.e., internalization)- converting the majority by convincing them that the minority’s views are right. Four main factors have been identified as important for a minority to have an influence over a majority.

What are the psychological barriers to women empowerment?

ISSN: 2456–5474	RNI No. UPBIL/2016/68367	VOL.- VII, ISSUE- IX October – 2022
	Innovation The Research Concept

/td> Psychological Empowerment of Women: A Root to All The Development Paper Id : 16619 Submission Date : 02/10/2022 Acceptance Date : 20/10/2022 Publication Date : 25/10/2022 For verification of this paper, please visit on http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/innovation.php#8 Maherukh Khan Faculty Department Of Commerce And Management Prof. Rajendra Singh (Rajju Bhayia) University Prayagraj,Uttar Pradesh, India Abstract Women empowerment provides a path to women equity. Psychological empowerment is required for the self-accreditation of a woman. Until and unless women will not be mentally and emotionally strong, they will surely not be able to overthrown the barriers in the pathway of their empowerment. A psychologically empowered woman live by a different set of core beliefs that guide her decisions and daily habits. These abilities enables her to withstand the out lash of difficulties at home or at work because of high self-esteem and self worth. Thus, Psychological empowerment of women act as a magical bean which nurture roots of various possibilities. Psychological development enlightens brain and minds that helps women to think, decide, and work for themselves and act as a supporting independent pillar of the society. This research paper focuses on the women's psychological empowerment related concepts. It will elaborate the psychological empowerment in women involving the indicators such as self-esteem, resilience, self-worth, decision-making power, locus of control which directly or indirectly effects the psychological well-being of women. It also concluded that psychologically empowered women weather be homemaker or working done their job more efficiently and effectively. Keywords Psychological Empowerment, Self Esteem, Decision Making Power, Resilience, Locus Of Control, Self Worth. Introduction Empowerment is a process of recognition and conscientization of potential building leading to greater participation, effective decision- making power and control leading to transformative action. This involves capability to get what one wants and to persuade others on the concerns. With reference to women the powerrelation that has to be involved includes their lives at multiple levels, family, community, society and the state. Empowerment is not about giving power to people ; its about letting this power out. Empowerment is the expansion in people's capability to access skills and make strategic life choices and cope with the present as well as future problems more effectively. Psychological Empowerment psychological empowerment is a process by which people become aware of the power dynamics that occur at multiple levels in their lives. The psychological empowerment is a amalgam of self efficacy, self esteem, self confidence, self determination, self awareness, positive thinking and it finally leads to happiness and wellbeing of women. A psychologically empowered woman has a capability to increase their self image and conquer stigma. Aim of study 1. To study the need and importance of psychological empowerment of women.2. To analyse the indicators of psychological empowerment of women.3. To identify the barriers in Psychological empowerment of working women. Review of Literature Keys et al.,( 2017), Psychological empowerment considers the role of the context and the influences from external factors that impact the lives of all people. According to Suharto ( 2010) empowerment not only includes strengthening individual members of the community, but also the institutions. Instilling modern cultural values, such as hard work, self- reliance, efficiency, openness, responsible attitude, are the main parts of empowerment. Oladipo ( 2009) argued that when people are psychologically empowered there will be a change in attitude, cognition and behaviour, which most assuredly will lead to a positive change in value orientation, increased patriotic actions, ability to postpone gratification of one’s desires, improved self-esteem, self-efficacy, self consciousness as well as better psychological well-being which will culminate in a peaceful and developing society. According to Sugiyanto et al., (2021), “Empowerment is one of the psychological elements that assist women’s motivation to have more autonomy in doing their work role.” Maliheh et al.,(2015),”Psychological empowerment of women plays a significant role in their overall growth and development. Itremarkably affects theorganizational variables like job satisfaction, organizational commitment, productivity etc.” Spreitzer et al.(1997),”Psychologicalempowerment has been positively correlated with managerial effectiveness, increased levels of job satisfaction and decreased level of job strain.” Methodology This paper is descriptive in nature. In this paper an attempt has been made to analyse the psychological empowerment of women. The secondary sources are used in the paper for study which are collected from several books, journals, newspapers, magazines and internet. Result and Discussion Need and Importance of Psychological Empowerment: Psychological empowerment provides ground for all the development in this world. Psychological empowerment is significant to consider when cope up with changes at work and improving performance. Psychological empowerment of women increases their sense of emotional control and motivates them to recognize their true worth. There is need to address the part of Psychological empowerment so that women at all the level can take proper decisions and increase their self confidence and self image. Psychological empowerment of women plays an important role in their overall development and growth. The psychological empowerment of women is also important in the eradication of poverty as it gives a sense of belongingness and job involvement to employees as well as a capacity to take responsibilities over their tasks. Thus, empowerment gives a degree of control and authority. Psychologically empowered women are self motivated and accelerated to partake in innovative strategies. Indicators of Psychological Empowerment: Psychological empowerment indicators include: Interactional Empowerment and Behavioural Empowerment Intrapersonal empowerment includes development of internal abilities and behaviour that helps to manage emotions, control attitude, cope with challenges and access new information. Women who have strong intrapersonal skills, take personal responsibility for their own emotions and feelings. They know how to focus on attention, set preferences and goals, and engage in deliberate thinking and problem-solving. Interactional empowerment includes up gradation of emotion formation that is how emotion constructed, shared and experienced. Interactional skills helps women to understand and explore with social changes. Behavioural empowerment enables women to act positively and accept the changing behaviour across the lifespan, by examining both the acquisition of basic skills and the development of more complex behaviours. Obstacles in Psychological Empowerment of Women There are various psychological impediments that are creating obstruction in women empowerment. Some of these psychological barriers are dread, insecurity, risk, absence of self-esteem, self- confidence, fear of failure etc. In some of the organizations lack of information, lack of independence in decision making, lack of autonomy in task performance are the biggest hindrance in psychological empowerment of women. Role ambiguity, work related pressure is the main contributor as an obstacle in the pathway of psychological empowerment. Findings “Women Empowerment” has been a routine in our discussion from the very beginning. Yet it should be noted, that while we all were busy in attempting to empower women in the fields of economy, society, education, Law, politics etc., we completely forgot how significant is their psychological empowerment. We almost forgot how important it is to empower the minds and brains of women first to make them fully independent, self-sufficient, and in actual terms, empowered. Now, as we all better know that empowerment takes place where there is debilitation. In this way, as women are constantly viewed as species who are undermined before men, it turns into our obligation to cause women to acknowledge on their own that they are worth quite a lot more. Obviously, there are no in-room classes which help women to understand their actual worth, the society should provide external support and intervention to upgrade their situation. In this way, to empower women psychologically, it should be noted that reverse psychology could play a very important role here. This implies, once women acknowledge about their capabilities, they would ultimately start believing in themselves and their self-confidence would arise. Simultaneously, if appropriate steps are taken to ensure that women actively partake in discussions, programmes and sessions, which rove around how they (women) make the foundation of any society, then this could lead to an enhancement in self-worth and self-esteem. It must be noted that psychologically empowered women are consequently enabled in other fields, as well. This is on the grounds that when ladies begin having faith in themselves, which happens when they are mentally strong, they recognizes their true identity, they get an understanding of who they are; they realise what is in their access and what could they do to lift up themselves. Conclusion Empowerment is one of the key factors that determines the success of upliftment in the status and position of women in the society. Presently in India, the women are enjoying the socio-economic status through starting their own business. It also can be said that significance, self confidence, self determination, self esteem and self efficacy are the main contributors in psychological empowerment. Through Psychological empowerment women enable to gain insight and aware of what is unfavourable and undesirable about their current situation, they could perceive a better situation and the possibilities of attaining it and also realize what is within their reach and what they could do to improve their situation. Limitation of the Study The research work depended on the secondary data. Therefore, outcomes of this research work depended a lot on the authenticity of the secondary data. References 1. Keys, C., McConnell, E., Motley, D., Liao, C., & McAuliff, K. (2017). The what, the how, and the who of empowerment: Reflections on an intellectual history. In M. Bond, I. Serrano-Garcia, & C. Keys (Eds.). APA Handbook of Community Psychology: Theoretical Foundations, Core Concepts, and Emerging Challenges(Vol.1). American Psychological Association.2. Oladipo, S.E. (2009). “Psychological empowerment and development.” Edo Journal of Counselling, 2(1): 118-126,3. Suharto, E.2010. Membangun masyarakat, memberdayakan rakyat:kajian strategis pembangunan kesejahteraan sosial dan pekerjaan sosial (1st ed.). Bandung: Refika Aditama.4. MalihehZare, FatemeZarmehr, and Hasan Ashrafi-rizi (2015), “Relationship BetweenPsychological Empowerment and Productivity of Medical Librarians,” Journal of Academy of medical Sciences of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Online Journal 23(3), pp.142–146.5. Spreitzer, G.M., Kizilos, M.A. &Nason, S.W., (1997) “A dimensional analysis of the relationship between psychological empowerment and effectiveness, satisfaction, and strain,” Journal of Management, 23(5), 679-704.6. Sugiyanto, E.K., Perdhana, M.S., Rahmawati, S.N., &Ariefiantoro, T. (2021). Psychological empowerment and women entrepreneurial success: The mediating role of proactive behaviour. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 27, 1-10.

What are the barriers against women?

In every country around the world women face multiple barriers and gender-based discrimination in the work place. The discrimination sets in early—from the kind of education girls get or till which age, to the kind of work they are channeled into. In both private and public spheres, women face occupational segregation, and multiple barriers—such as lack of access to land, capital, financial resources and technology, as well as gender-based violence—due to cultural mindsets and stereotypes.

1. These obstacles make it harder for women to get on an equal footing with men in the world of work.
2. Legal barriers further compound gender inequalities.
3. While legal frameworks covering sexual harassment in employment do exist in 114 economies, enforcement and access to justice is still slow and challenging.

Additionally, in 155 out of 173 economies, at least one gender-based legal restriction exists on women’s employment and entrepreneurship,

What are the barriers to women’s participation?

Lack of financial resources to be considered as meaningful members of political parties. Lack of formal or political education and limited access to information. Lack of political experience. The dual burden and a disproportionate share of domestic work.

What are the minorities in psychology?

Datapoint News from APA’s Center for Workforce Studies By Luona Lin, MPP, Karen Stamm, PhD, and Peggy Christidis, PhD February 2018, Vol 49, No.2 Print version: page 19 2 min read Comment:

In 2015, 86 percent of psychologists in the U.S. workforce were white, 5 percent were Asian, 5 percent were Hispanic, 4 percent were black/African-American and 1 percent were multiracial or from other racial/ethnic groups.1 This is less diverse than the U.S. population as a whole, which is 62 percent white and 38 percent racial/ethnic minority.1 The health service psychology workforce 2 was 88 percent white and 12 percent racial/ethnic minorities, and the academic workforce 3 was 81 percent white and 19 percent racial/ethnic minorities. The psychology workforce is becoming more diverse as more racial/ethnic minorities enter the workforce. In 2015, 66 percent of early career psychologists were white and 34 percent were racial/ethnic minorities.4 A third (32 percent) of psychology doctorates earned in 2016 were awarded to racial/ethnic minorities, and 68 percent were awarded to whites.5

Why is diversity important in psychology?

Why Does Representation Matter in Psychology? – At its core, psychology aims to understand human behavior. Without addressing the impact and importance of race and diversity, it can be argued that psychology is incomplete. According to psychologist Robert M.

• Sellers, “Psychological science must capture the full breadth of human experiences before it can truly say that it understands a particular psychological construct or phenomenon.
• If we are really trying to develop laws of human behavior, it’s extremely important that those laws be based on data that captures that variability.” For this reason, it’s crucial to include issues of diversity in psychological research and practice.

Different identities in race and culture shape individuals’ worldviews, and in turn, their psychology. It’s also beneficial for individuals within the field of psychology to be representative of the population as a whole. A diverse set of psychologists, counselors, and psychiatrists opens the door for a diverse set of clients who had otherwise not seen counseling as an option.

Request info For example, the APA reported that half of Asian Americans do not get treatment for mental health issues due to a language barrier. As it stands, a little over 2% of doctorate psychologists are Asian. The same barriers exist for Black people in U.S. struggling with mental illness. According to the APA, only 2% of the total number of psychologists in America are Black.

This disparity is happening alongside immense stigma within the Black community to seek mental health treatment. In addition, minority patients often seek clinicians of a similar racial background. In these cases, patients see more effective outcomes in their treatments.

As it stands, there is not a truly representative set of psychologists in the workforce. Therefore, it’s essential for existing psychologists to be trained in cultural competence and minority mental health issues. When psychologists understand the unique issues and history faced by people of color, they can provide better treatment and overall health outcomes.

“It is not considered essential that the clinician and client share the same ethnic background. Nor is it essential that a clinician has experienced a history of racial trauma to provide support for a client with symptoms of post-traumatic stress,” Clive Kennedy, Ph.D., department faculty at the Los Angeles Campus, recently told INSIGHT magazine,

What is an example of underrepresented minority?

Underrepresented Minority Definition At UCSF our working definition of an underrepresented minority (URM) is someone whose racial or ethnic makeup is from one of the following:

African American / Black Asian: Filipino, Hmong*, or Vietnamese Hispanic / Latinx Native American / Alaskan Native Native Hawaiian / Other Pacific Islander Two or more races, when one or more are from the preceding racial and ethnic categories in this list

* Hmong is not an explicit option on the UC employment forms at this time. Are you creating or chairing a committee? Please see the, : Underrepresented Minority Definition

When did women enter the field of psychology?

The History of Women in Psychology The “History of Women in Psychology” symposium at the APS 21st Annual Convention provided a glimpse into the history and challenges women psychologists have faced, through the eyes of both historical researchers and two pioneering women who lived that history.

Ann Johnson of the University of St. Thomas described the “classic history” of women in psychology: “Women psychologists’ contributions and lives were excluded or minimized in traditional accounts of the field for many, many years, but that began to change, finally, after the infusion of feminist critique and analysis into psychology in the ‘60s and ‘70s, when their contributions and their lives were resurrected and historians started to document the life stories of these women and to preserve their voices.” In recent years, the “first generation” of female psychologists have started to receive more recognition, Johnson said, but it is challenging to find information regarding the “second generation” of female researchers (those receiving PhDs between 1906 and 1945).

Johnson also observed that historians tend to focus on psychologists who worked as academics and not so much on those working in applied psychology and, as a result, we know very little about women who were applied psychologists in the first and middle part of the 20th century.

• However, there are a few, including Mildred Mitchell (a clinical psychologist who worked in military settings) and Georgene Seward (an experimental psychologist who challenged traditional gender roles with empirical research in her book Sex and the Social Order ).
• Johnson concluded that we should rethink our criteria for role model status among women in psychology and consider new role model categories such as career flexibility, work-family balance, and persistence.

Alexandra Rutherford of York University began her talk on “Feminism and Psychology,” by noting that “the explicitly feminist storylines of psychology’s past” have not been explored as much as other parts of psychological history. During her presentation, Rutherford emphasized that feminism has taken different forms, depending on the time period.

Her talk was organized according to these “waves” of feminism in order to keep the focus on feminism as political movement and the ways in which that political movement “influenced some women who were making their way as psychologists during those periods.” First wave feminism had an impact on psychology through the individual efforts of select women, as they were “trying to do better science to combat the socially sanctioned beliefs about women that were taken as fact.” Feminism went underground during the period that Rutherford referred to as “between the waves”— women continued challenging sexist practices, but with a less overt and prominent gender-based agenda.

Feminist psychology emerged as an institutionally recognized field during the second wave of feminism in the late 1960s and early 1970s and the Association for Women in Psychology was formed in 1969. This period saw successful challenges to institutionalized sexism as well as challenges to male-centric psychological theories. APS Secretary, Anne Treisman, Princeton University, and Eleanor Maccoby, an APS Fellow and Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Stanford University, provided fascinating overviews, peppered with a number of colorful anecdotes, of how their careers have evolved.

1. Treisman admitted that she was pretty lucky and “probably not very typical of my generation.” During her career, she experienced minor examples of discrimination, which she managed to brush off.
2. For example, early in her career, she was lecturing to a group of doctors.
3. During the question and answer session, she was asked, “What’s a nice girl like you doing in psychology?” Treisman observed that timing had a lot to with how her career developed.

When she was starting out, the expectations were very different compared to today — there were not as many journals to read, less job competition, and fewer publications expected. Also, the “two-body problem” (trying to find a job in the same place as your spouse) is more of an issue today than when she was beginning her career.

She joked that for this reason, she always advised her daughters that a “portable spouse is a huge asset.” She concluded that one of the reasons for her success was the expectations she had for herself — she had always expected to be treated equally. Maccoby described how she was often an unwitting catalyst for social change.

One particular incident occurred when she was working at the Federal Reserve Building in Washington, DC. She had set a lunch meeting with a researcher who had wanted a consultation from her. The researcher was African-American and Maccoby had not been aware that her building’s lunchroom was segregated.

• Following their lunch, “there was hell to pay,” including her secretary refusing to work for her anymore.
• As a result, Maccoby met with one of the Directors, and upon telling him what happened, he announced that the public areas in the building would no longer be segregated.
• The audience burst into a huge round of applause as Maccoby concluded, “So I involuntarily desegregated the Federal Reserve Building cafeteria!” Maccoby also talked about her time teaching at Harvard and Stanford.

After she arrived at Stanford, a group of students stole records of faculty salaries and divulged how much the professors earned during the graduation ceremony. When they got to Maccoby, they announced, “Oh, and here comes the lowest paid full professor in the university.” Maccoby had no idea that was the case and she ended up getting a “nice raise” a few weeks after.

What is the psychology of women theory?

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Feminine psychology or the psychology of women is an approach that focuses on social, economic, and political issues confronting women all throughout their lives. It emerged as a reaction to male-dominated developmental theories such as Sigmund Freud ‘s view of female sexuality.

The original work of Karen Horney argued that male realities cannot describe female psychology or define their gender because they are not informed by girls’ or women’s experiences. Theorists, like Horney, claimed this new feminist approach of women’s experiences being different than men’s was required, and that women’s social existence was crucial in understanding their psychology.

It is suggested in Dr. Carol Gilligan’s research that some characteristics of female psychology emerge to comply with the given social order defined by men and not necessarily because it is the nature of their gender or psychology.

What are some examples of gender roles in psychology?

What are gender roles? – Gender roles in society means how we’re expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing.

• Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold.
• Every society, ethnic group, and culture has gender role expectations, but they can be very different from group to group.
• They can also change in the same society over time.
• For example, pink used to be considered a masculine color in the U.S.

while blue was considered feminine.

What is minority vs majority influence in psychology?

Minority influence, a form of social influence, takes place when a member of a minority group influences the majority to accept the minority’s beliefs or behavior, This occurs when a small group or an individual acts as an agent of social change by questioning established societal perceptions, and proposing alternative, original ideas which oppose the existing social norms.

1. There are two types of social influence: majority influence (resulting in conformity and public compliance) and minority influence (resulting in conversion).
2. Majority influence refers to the majority trying to produce conformity on the minority, while minority influence is converting the majority to adopt the thinking of the minority group.

Unlike other forms of influence, minority influence is often thought of as a more innovative form of social change, because it usually involves a personal shift in private opinion. Examples of minority influence include the civil rights movement in the United States and the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa,

What are two 2 key factors that influence the minorities success in converting a group according to the conversion theory?

Role of Social Influence Processes in Social Change We have previously looked at minority influence and the work of and who concluded that a consistent, committed and flexible minority is most effective in influencing an individual. However, minority groups also play an important role in facilitating social change by influencing an entire society to change their attitude, behaviours and beliefs.

Moscovici (1980) put forward a conversion theory to explain how social change occurs and there are three clear factors that determine the success of a minority to facilitate social change, including: consistency, sacrifices and group membership. Firstly, the minority must be consistent in their opposition to the majority.

History has provided many real life examples, where consistent individuals have challenged and questioned the values and norms of society ( and have been criminalised for their views ). Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela led civil rights movements and were consistent in their views against apartheid for many years, which helped bring about social change.

Furthermore, the results of Moscovici’s (1969) research highlight the importance of consistency in minority influence. Moscovici found that a consistent minority were more likely (8.4%) to convince a majority that the colour of a slide was green when it was in fact blue, in comparison to an inconsistent minority (1.3%).

Secondly, minorities that make sacrifices are more likely to be influential. If minorities show their dedication to the cause through sacrifice, for example imprisonment or even death, their influence becomes more powerful. For example, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white male passenger in the 1950s, she was arrested for violating US law.

This event helped trigger the civil rights movement to end the racial segregation laws in America. The case of Rosa Parks demonstrates that people who are willing to make a sacrifice (in her case being arrested) show their commitment to their cause and as a result are more influential. Finally, if the minority is similar to the majority, in terms of class, age, gender or even sexuality, then they are more likely to be influential.

Maass et al. (1982) investigated the idea of group membership and found that a minority of heterosexual men were more likely to convince a heterosexual majority about gay rights, in comparison to a minority of homosexual people. Maass concluded that ‘straight’ men have more persuasive power when discussing gay rights with other straight men, in comparison to gay men.

1. This supports the idea that similarity in terms of group membership is an important factor for minority influence and social change.
2. This process can be used to explain many examples of social change, which have occurred throughout history.
3. For example, the suffragettes were consistent in their view and persistently used educational and political arguments to draw attention to female rights.

Furthermore, they remained consistent for many years and despite opposition continued protesting and lobbying until they convinced society that women were entitled to vote. In addition, many of the suffragettes made significant sacrifices for their cause; many risked imprisonment and others risked death through extended hunger strikes, making their influence even more powerful.

What is the difference between minority and majority in group psychology?

If the minority is inconsistent, or wavers in their support of the idea, the majority group is unlikely to give the idea much thought. However, if the minority presents the idea consistently and with confidence, the majority is more likely to at least listen to the idea and consider its merits.

What problems do minority groups face?

Best Practice 5: Changing rules and expectations in society (cultural norms) that support violence –

Challenges and Disparities for Minority Children, Youth, and Families	Ways to Help and Support Minority Children, Youth, and Families
Ethnic minority families are more likely to experience discrimination and prejudice. Prejudice and stereotyping can cause frustrations that can contribute to violent or aggressive behavior. Reporting violence or criminal behavior can be unacceptable in some communities, which leaves the problem unaddressed. When there is a breakdown of social relations and values, such as equality and fairness, this can undermine trust in institutions and lead residents to endorse violence as an acceptable way of resolving conflict.	Build networks that promote trust and foster a sense of community and connectedness among neighbors. Be an example and stress the importance of mutual respect and encourage the use of conflict resolution skills that do not lead to aggression or violence. Address attitudes towards weapons, gangs, community violence, aggressive and violent behaviors. Increase youth access to opportunities where they can be exposed to positive role models that emphasize mutual respect and the use of good problem-solving skills.

What are diversity factors in psychology?

Diversity is a distinct research focus in UNCW’s Department of Psychology. The APA definition of diversity recognizes the broad scope of dimensions of race, ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, gender, age, dis ability, class status, education, religious/spiritual orientation and other cultural dimensions. Here are some of the research programs in the Department of Psychology that address diversity issues: Dr. Graciela Espinosa-Hernandez ‘ lab researches sexuality, romantic relationships and psychological adjustment among Mexican adolescents.

Currently, we are examining how stressors are linked to sexual behaviors, and psychological adjustment, and how cultural values shape these associations. Dr. Sally MacKain ‘s Recovery Lab focuses on people with mental health and substance use disorders who are involved in the criminal justice system. With funding from a SAMHSA/SAT grant, they evaluate the impact of a rural treatment court program and assist the court in addressing racial disparities in admissions, retention and outcomes.

Dr. Len Lecci’ s research examines how minorities are perceived differently with respect to threat potential and criminal culpability depending upon their stereotypicality and the extent to which the observer endorses certain attitudes (e.g., less empathy, stereotype endorsement).

1. Importantly, this research examines minority victims, not defendants, yet the findings illustrate a victim-to-criminal shift in the public’s (both Black and White American) responses.
2. Other research focuses more broadly on legal decision making, health attitudes and beliefs, as well as memory functioning.

Dr. Kate Nooner ‘s research examines the ways in which gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status impact trauma exposure and recovery as well as problematic substance use behaviors. Her neuroscience informed research with adolescents in the community includes understanding ways to prevent binge drinking in underrepresented minority groups including African American and Spanish speaking youth ( TRLab ).

Her collaborative research with the National Consortium on Alcohol & Neurodevelopment in Adolescence includes examination of gender and ethnic disparities in the emergence of high risk alcohol use. Dr. Carol Van Camp studies severe behaviors displayed by children with developmental or intellectual disabilities, with a focus on identifying the causes of those behaviors and evaluating interventions aimed at teaching adaptive communication, play, academic, self-care, and vocational skills.

Learn more about Dr. Van Camp’s lab here, Dr. Tom Cariveau ‘s research focuses on methods to foster early skill development in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities. His work includes underserved groups within these populations, specifically those who meet criteria as “minimally verbal” and girls with autism spectrum disorder (a significantly understudied population).

1. While his work emphasizes the outcomes of the child, dynamic family, community, educational, and state/federal systems have significant influence over the experience of these children and his research seeks to promote the betterment of these systems in support of all children. Dr.
2. Alissa Dark Freudeman ‘s RISE Lab studies adult development and aging.

Her research broadly focuses on understanding how self-regulatory beliefs impact psychological well-being and behavior, especially in older adults. Drs. Karen Daniels and Jeffrey Toth study cognition and brain function in older adults. Their research focuses on changes in memory, attention, and metacognition, as well as changes in the neural systems that support these processes.

Dr. Simone Nguyen ‘s Cognitive Development Lab is dedicated to the study of conceptual development in children and adults. The CDL has ongoing projects and collaborations that focus on concepts and categories across cultures as well as individuals with disabilities. Dr. Nora Noel ‘s BEACH lab examines alcohol and caffeine use as related to social and cognitive behaviors.

They also study health related issues, including racial disparities in treatment. Dr. Bryan Myers studies dogmatic thinking and attitude change. He conducts jury decision making studies to learn how pretrial attitudes shape decisions, capital sentencing judgments.

For example, he investigates the effects of defendant race on sentencing when victim impact statements contain language that dehumanizes the defendant. Dr. Kate Bruce and Dr. Mark Galizio study learning and memory in rats, with a focus on translational research to understand more about human learning and memory deficits.

Most of the scientific literature on the neurobiology of learning and memory is based on research with male rodents. They have recently begun to test female as well as male rats in the laboratory and are developing methods to assess female reproductive stage to correlate with performance on learning and memory tasks.

What is minority influence in deeper processing psychology?

-Is a form of social influence whereby a minority of people persuade others to adopt their beliefs and behaviours. This can lead to internalisation, -this is distinct from conformity(where the majority do the influencing)

What has tended to be ignored in the study of women’s psychology?

In the study of women’s psychology, what has tended to be ignored? Black matriarchy theory.

Has psychology been influenced by diversity?

Why Does Representation Matter in Psychology? – At its core, psychology aims to understand human behavior. Without addressing the impact and importance of race and diversity, it can be argued that psychology is incomplete. According to psychologist Robert M.

Sellers, “Psychological science must capture the full breadth of human experiences before it can truly say that it understands a particular psychological construct or phenomenon. If we are really trying to develop laws of human behavior, it’s extremely important that those laws be based on data that captures that variability.” For this reason, it’s crucial to include issues of diversity in psychological research and practice.

Different identities in race and culture shape individuals’ worldviews, and in turn, their psychology. It’s also beneficial for individuals within the field of psychology to be representative of the population as a whole. A diverse set of psychologists, counselors, and psychiatrists opens the door for a diverse set of clients who had otherwise not seen counseling as an option.

Request info For example, the APA reported that half of Asian Americans do not get treatment for mental health issues due to a language barrier. As it stands, a little over 2% of doctorate psychologists are Asian. The same barriers exist for Black people in U.S. struggling with mental illness. According to the APA, only 2% of the total number of psychologists in America are Black.

This disparity is happening alongside immense stigma within the Black community to seek mental health treatment. In addition, minority patients often seek clinicians of a similar racial background. In these cases, patients see more effective outcomes in their treatments.

As it stands, there is not a truly representative set of psychologists in the workforce. Therefore, it’s essential for existing psychologists to be trained in cultural competence and minority mental health issues. When psychologists understand the unique issues and history faced by people of color, they can provide better treatment and overall health outcomes.

“It is not considered essential that the clinician and client share the same ethnic background. Nor is it essential that a clinician has experienced a history of racial trauma to provide support for a client with symptoms of post-traumatic stress,” Clive Kennedy, Ph.D., department faculty at the Los Angeles Campus, recently told INSIGHT magazine,

When did women enter the field of psychology?

The History of Women in Psychology The “History of Women in Psychology” symposium at the APS 21st Annual Convention provided a glimpse into the history and challenges women psychologists have faced, through the eyes of both historical researchers and two pioneering women who lived that history.

• Ann Johnson of the University of St.
• Thomas described the “classic history” of women in psychology: “Women psychologists’ contributions and lives were excluded or minimized in traditional accounts of the field for many, many years, but that began to change, finally, after the infusion of feminist critique and analysis into psychology in the ‘60s and ‘70s, when their contributions and their lives were resurrected and historians started to document the life stories of these women and to preserve their voices.” In recent years, the “first generation” of female psychologists have started to receive more recognition, Johnson said, but it is challenging to find information regarding the “second generation” of female researchers (those receiving PhDs between 1906 and 1945).

Johnson also observed that historians tend to focus on psychologists who worked as academics and not so much on those working in applied psychology and, as a result, we know very little about women who were applied psychologists in the first and middle part of the 20th century.

1. However, there are a few, including Mildred Mitchell (a clinical psychologist who worked in military settings) and Georgene Seward (an experimental psychologist who challenged traditional gender roles with empirical research in her book Sex and the Social Order ).
2. Johnson concluded that we should rethink our criteria for role model status among women in psychology and consider new role model categories such as career flexibility, work-family balance, and persistence.

Alexandra Rutherford of York University began her talk on “Feminism and Psychology,” by noting that “the explicitly feminist storylines of psychology’s past” have not been explored as much as other parts of psychological history. During her presentation, Rutherford emphasized that feminism has taken different forms, depending on the time period.

Her talk was organized according to these “waves” of feminism in order to keep the focus on feminism as political movement and the ways in which that political movement “influenced some women who were making their way as psychologists during those periods.” First wave feminism had an impact on psychology through the individual efforts of select women, as they were “trying to do better science to combat the socially sanctioned beliefs about women that were taken as fact.” Feminism went underground during the period that Rutherford referred to as “between the waves”— women continued challenging sexist practices, but with a less overt and prominent gender-based agenda.

Feminist psychology emerged as an institutionally recognized field during the second wave of feminism in the late 1960s and early 1970s and the Association for Women in Psychology was formed in 1969. This period saw successful challenges to institutionalized sexism as well as challenges to male-centric psychological theories. APS Secretary, Anne Treisman, Princeton University, and Eleanor Maccoby, an APS Fellow and Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Stanford University, provided fascinating overviews, peppered with a number of colorful anecdotes, of how their careers have evolved.

1. Treisman admitted that she was pretty lucky and “probably not very typical of my generation.” During her career, she experienced minor examples of discrimination, which she managed to brush off.
2. For example, early in her career, she was lecturing to a group of doctors.
3. During the question and answer session, she was asked, “What’s a nice girl like you doing in psychology?” Treisman observed that timing had a lot to with how her career developed.

When she was starting out, the expectations were very different compared to today — there were not as many journals to read, less job competition, and fewer publications expected. Also, the “two-body problem” (trying to find a job in the same place as your spouse) is more of an issue today than when she was beginning her career.

• She joked that for this reason, she always advised her daughters that a “portable spouse is a huge asset.” She concluded that one of the reasons for her success was the expectations she had for herself — she had always expected to be treated equally.
• Maccoby described how she was often an unwitting catalyst for social change.

One particular incident occurred when she was working at the Federal Reserve Building in Washington, DC. She had set a lunch meeting with a researcher who had wanted a consultation from her. The researcher was African-American and Maccoby had not been aware that her building’s lunchroom was segregated.

1. Following their lunch, “there was hell to pay,” including her secretary refusing to work for her anymore.
2. As a result, Maccoby met with one of the Directors, and upon telling him what happened, he announced that the public areas in the building would no longer be segregated.
3. The audience burst into a huge round of applause as Maccoby concluded, “So I involuntarily desegregated the Federal Reserve Building cafeteria!” Maccoby also talked about her time teaching at Harvard and Stanford.

After she arrived at Stanford, a group of students stole records of faculty salaries and divulged how much the professors earned during the graduation ceremony. When they got to Maccoby, they announced, “Oh, and here comes the lowest paid full professor in the university.” Maccoby had no idea that was the case and she ended up getting a “nice raise” a few weeks after.

What female psychologist was denied a degree because of gender?

(1863-1930) Paired – Associate Learning Paradigm in Memory Research First Woman President of the American Psychological Association Mary Whiton Calkins was ready for an academic career before the patriarchal academic world of the late nineteenth century was ready for her.

1. After earning an undergraduate degree in 1882 from Smith College in classics and philosophy, Calkins began to teach Greek at Wellesley College.
2. She found herself drawn to the nascent field of psychology, and in the late 1880’s Calkins was granted special permission to attend seminars at Harvard (then an all-male institution), including those offered by William James and Josiah Royce.

In fact, Calkins was the sole student in James’ graduate seminar in 1890, the year he published his famous Principles of Psychology. Calkins also worked in Hugo Münsterberg’s lab from 1892-1895. Of her studies with James, Calkins wrote in her autobiography: “The Principles of Psychology was warm from the press; and my absorbed study of those brilliant, erudite, and provocative volumes, as interpreted by their writer, was my introduction to psychology.

What I gained from the written page, and even more from tête-à-tête discussion was, it seems to me as I look back upon it, beyond all else, a vivid sense of the concreteness of psychology and of the immediate reality of “finite individual minds” with their “thoughts and feelings.” James’s vituperation of the “psychologist’s fallacy” – the “confusion of his own standpoint with that of the mental fact about which he is making his report” – results directly from this view of introspection as immediate experience and not mere inference from experience” (Calkins, 1930, p.31).

Calkins passed all the requirements for a Ph.D. at Harvard with distinction, and wrote her dissertation on memory, for which she developed the paired-associate experimental paradigm, one of the classic tools in memory research. In 1896 Münsterberg wrote to the president of Harvard that Calkins was, “one of the strongest professors of psychology in this country.” A committee of six professors, including James, unanimously voted that Calkins had satisfied all the requirements, but she was refused a Harvard doctoral degree because she was a woman.

She was later offered a special doctorate bearing the name of Radcliffe College (at the time, the woman’s college associated with Harvard), but turned it down. This technical set-back did not prevent Calkins from pressing on with her work. She began to teach psychology at Wellesley, and established the first psychology laboratory at an American women’s college.

In 1898 Calkins was elected as the American Psychological Association’s first female president. She authored several books and lectured widely during her distinguished, decades-long career in psychology. Sources Boatwright, K.J. & Nolan, B.B. (2005). Executive summary: Proposal for a posthumous degree for Mary Whiton Calkins, the “Mother of Psychology”: Archival evidence demonstrating completion of doctoral requirements for the Harvard doctoral degree.