The Classic Wanderer

What Is Effortful Processing In Psychology?

• Sabrina Sarro
• 05.05.2023
• 0
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Effortful processing: Active processing of information that requires sustained effort. Shallow processing: Processing information based on its surface characteristics. Deep processing: Processing information with respect to its meaning. Attention: The brain’s ability to focus on stimuli.

What is an example of effortful processing?

Answer and Explanation: Effortful processing is when information is processed only with effort by the person, as opposed to automatic processing. For example, for one to remember a phone number requires effortful processing. One only remembers by putting in effort to store this information.

What is effortful processing in simple terms?

Effortful processing is just as the name implies; learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and effort. We have the capacity to remember lots of things without putting forth any effort. However, there are lots of times when we must practice, rehearse, and try to remember things.

What is effortful memory in psychology?

Glossary – acoustic encoding input of sounds, words, and music Atkinson-Shiffrin model (A-S) memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory automatic processing encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words declarative memory type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience effortful processing encoding of information that takes effort and attention encoding input of information into the memory system episodic memory type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory explicit memory memories we consciously try to remember and recall implicit memory memories that are not part of our consciousness long-term memory (LTM) continuous storage of information memory system or process that stores what we learn for future use memory consolidation active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory procedural memory type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim recall accessing information without cues recognition identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue rehearsal conscious repetition of information to be remembered relearning learning information that was previously learned retrieval act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness self-reference effect tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance semantic encoding input of words and their meaning semantic memory type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts sensory memory storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes short-term memory (STM) (also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used storage creation of a permanent record of information visual encoding input of images

What is effortful processing also known as?

Effortful processing is also known as. Chunking. Chunking : Organizing data into manageable units.

What is an example of effortful control in psychology?

Temperamental Effortful Control (Self-Regulation) | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development Nancy Eisenberg, PhD Arizona State University, USA April 2012, Rev. ed. Introduction An important dimension of temperament is effortful control, which has been defined by Rothbart as “the ability to inhibit a dominant response to perform a subdominant response” (p.137) 1 or the “efficiency of executive attention, including the ability to inhibit a dominant response and/or to activate a subdominant response, to plan, and to detect errors.” 1,2 Effortful control includes the abilities to voluntarily manage attention (attentional regulation) and inhibit (inhibitory control) or activate (activational control) behaviour as needed to adapt, especially when the child does not particularly want to do so.

• For example, the abilities to focus attention when there are distractions, to not interrupt others and sit still in church or class, and to force oneself to do an unpleasant task are aspects of effortful control.
• These abilities underlie the emergence of self-regulation, a major milestone in children’s development.2,3 Although nearly all children improve greatly in their effortful control (and hence self-regulation) across the first five years of life, there are large individual differences in effortful control.

As is true for other aspects of temperament, individual differences in effortful control are believed to be due to both biological factors (hereditary and constitutional factors, such as the prenatal environment) and environmental influences (e.g., on prenatal care), and to be affected over time by environmental influences during early childhood.

Effortful control is believed to involve executive attention abilities and to be linked to activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus (part of the brain) and prefrontal cortex.3 Effortful control, as part of executive attention, has been shown to be involved in the voluntary control of thoughts and feelings, in resolving conflict in regard to discrepant information, correcting errors and planning new actions.1,3,4 Subject The emergence of temperamentally based self-regulation and individual differences therein is important for multiple reasons.

As children age, they are increasingly held responsible for their own behaviour by their socializers.2,3 Children who are not well regulated are likely to elicit negative reactions from both peers and adults. In addition, the attentional skills involved in effortful control are likely quite important for learning.5,6 Finally, the skills involved in effortful control have an obvious relevance to children’s emerging adjustment and social competence.7 Problem For the aforementioned reasons, it is important to identify both the normative pattern for the emergence of effortful control and the antecedents of individual differences in effortful control.

1. Researchers in the developmental sciences have examined both of these issues.
2. Research Context Effortful control has been studied using a variety of methods.
3. Investigators examining effortful control typically have used parents’ or other caregivers’ reports of children’s effortful control and behavioural measures.

These behavioural measures typically include tasks that assess children’s focused attention and persistence on tasks, attentional control on Stroop tests or other measures of executive attention, the ability to delay gratification (e.g., hold an M & M on their tongue), and the abilities to inhibit or activate behaviour (e.g., follow an instruction in response to one cue but not another or move faster and slower in accordance with instructions).8 Such research has been conducted in both laboratory settings (sometimes in preschools) and in the home environment.

Ey Research Questions Important research questions are the age at which attentional and behavioural control (i.e., inhibitory and activational control) emerge in the early years of life and when they become relatively well developed. Investigators have also been interested in aspects of children’s social interactions – especially parent-child interactions – that are associated with individual differences in effortful control.

Behavioural and molecular geneticists have also attempted to identify the degree to which heredity contributes to effortful control and interacts with environmental influences when predicting self-regulation. Finally, researchers have assessed the relationships between effortful control and young children’s adjustment and moral development.

• Recent Research Results Young infants exhibit very little effortful control.
• Attention becomes somewhat more voluntary (but still quite limited) between nine and 18 months of age 9 as infants learn to resolve conflicts (e.g.
• When processing information), correct errors and plan new actions.4 Using a Stroop-like task that requires toddlers to switch attention and inhibit behaviour accordingly, Posner and Rothbart 4 reported that children showed significant improvement in performance by 30 months of age and performed with high accuracy by 36 to 38 months of age.10,11 Infants are very limited in the behavioural component of voluntary behavioural control (e.g., the ability to inhibit behaviour upon command), but these skills improve considerably in the third year of life.4,8 The ability to effortfully inhibit behaviour on tasks such as “Simon Says” emerges at approximately 44 months of age and is fairly good by four years of age, 4,12 although improvements in effortful control continue into childhood.13 Twin studies confirm that there is a genetic basis to effortful control.14 However, parenting has also been associated with individual differences in effortful control.

In general, young children’s self-regulation (including behaviours that reflect effortful control) has been positively associated with maternal support and sensitivity, and negatively related to a directive and controlling caregiving style.15,16,17 Moreover, children’s heredity and quality of their attachment interact to predict their self-regulation; children with certain – related are more susceptible to the low self-regulation if they have an insecure (but not secure) attachment.18 Finally, it is clear that effortful control is linked to optimal development, even in the first five years of life.

For example, laboratory or parent-report measures of toddlers’, preschoolers’ and children’s effortful control have been associated with lower levels of problem behaviours, concurrently and at older ages.19,20,21 In addition, young children’s effortful control has been found to correlate with, and predict over time, low levels of negative emotion, 7,19,20,22,23 conscience, 19, 24,25 high levels of social competence, 5,7,26 andhighly committed compliance.26,27 Conclusions Although effortful control has a hereditary basis, it develops rapidly in the first four years of life, with marked improvements occurring in the third year.

Individual differences in effortful control, although due partly to heredity, are also associated with the quality of mother-child interactions. Warm, supportive parenting, rather than cold, directive parenting, appears to predict higher levels of effortful control.

Individual differences in effortful control that emerge during the first five years of life have been linked to higher levels of adjustment, social competence, committed compliance and conscience, concurrently and in the future. Implications The toddler and preschool years are a time in which temperamentally based effortful control emerges rapidly and provides the basis for the emergence of self-regulation.

Self-regulation is critical because it affects the quality of children’s social interactions and their capacity for learning. Because adults increasingly expect children to self-regulate as they mature, adults are likely to respond negatively to children who do not develop at least normative levels of self-regulation.

Although individual differences are due partly to heredity, it is likely that socializers influence the emergence of children’s effortful control; moreover, genes and the social environment interact in their effects on regulation. Because the quality of parenting is associated with higher levels of effortful control, it is important that parents and other caregivers be encouraged to interact with children in ways that foster the development of effortful control.

Indeed, the relation between parenting style and a range of developmental outcomes is likely due in part to the effects of parenting on children’s self-regulation.28 Because of the relation between effortful control and healthy psychological and socio-emotional development, service-providers and policy-makers are well advised to implement procedures that promote supportive parenting and teacher-child interactions.

Rothbart MK, Bates JE. Temperament. In: Eisenberg N, ed. Social, emotional, and personality development, New York, NY: Wiley. Damon W, ed. Handbook of Child Psychology.2006: 99-166.6th ed; vol 3. Kopp CB, Neufeld SJ. Emotional development during infancy. In: Davidson RJ, Scherer KR, Goldsmith HH, eds. Handbook of affective sciences, Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 2003:347-374. Posner, MI, Rothbart, MK. Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science. Annual Review of Psychology 2007; 58; 1-23. Posner MI, Rothbart MK. Attention, self-regulation and consciousness. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 1998;353(1377):1915-1927. Eisenberg, N, Valiente, C, & Eggum, ND. Self-regulation and school readiness. Early Education and Development,2010; 21; 681-698. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. Do children’s attention processes mediate the link between family predictors and school readiness? Developmental Psychology 2003;39(3):581-593. Eisenberg, N., Eggum, N., Vaughan, J., & Edwards, A. Relations of self-regulatory/control capacities to maladjustment, social competence, and emotionality. In:. Hoyle R, ed., Handbook of personality and self-regulation. New York: Wiley; 2010: 21-46. Kochanska G, Murray K, Harlan ET. Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology 2000;36(2):220-232. Ruff HA, Rothbart MK. Attention in early development: Themes and variations, London, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 1996. Gerardi-Caulton G. Sensitivity to spatial conflict and the development of self-regulation in children 24-36 months of age. Developmental Science 2000;3(4):397-404. Rothbart MK, Ellis LK, Rueda MR, Posner MI. Developing mechanisms of temperamental effortful control. Journal of Personality 2003;71(6):1113-1143. Reed MA, Pien DL, Rothbart MK. Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 1984;30(2):131-147. Murphy BC, Eisenberg N, Fabes RA, Shepard SA, Guthrie IK. Consistency and change in children’s emotionality and regulation: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 1999;45(3):413-444. Goldsmith, HH, Pollak, SD, Davidson, RJ Developmental neuroscience perspectives on emotion regulation. Child Development Perspective s, 2008; 2, 132-140. Eisenberg, N, Smith, C., Spinrad, TL Effortful control: Relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood. In: Baumeister RF & Vohs KD, eds., Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications, New York: Guilford; 2011, 2nd edition; pp.263-283. Eisenberg, N, Zhou, Q, Spinrad, T L, Valiente, C, Fabes, RA., & Liew, J. Relations among positive parenting, children’s effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 2005; 76: 1055-1071. Belsky, J, Fearon, RMP, & Bell, B Parenting, attention and externalizing problems: Testing mediation longitudinally, repeatedly and reciprocally. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2007; 48; 1233-1242. Kochanska, G., Philibert, R.A., & Barry, R.A. Interplay of genes and early mother-child relationship in the development of self-regulation from toddler to preschool age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2009; 50; 1331-1338. Kochanska G, Knaack A. Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Personality 2003;71(6):1087-1112. Eisenberg, N, Valiente, C, Spinrad, TL, Cumberland, A, Liew, J, Reiser, M, Zhou, Q, Losoya, SH. Longitudinal relations of children’s effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology 2009; 45; 988-1008. Eisenberg, N, Spinrad, TL, Eggum, ND Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children’s maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2010; 6; 495-525. Eisenberg N, Fabes RA, Nyman M, Bernzweig J, Pinuelas A. The relations of emotionality and regulation to children’s anger-related reactions. Child Development 1994;65(1):109-128. Kochanska G, Coy KC, Tjebkes TL, Husarek SJ. Individual differences in emotionality in infancy. Child Development 1998;69(2):375-390. Kochanska G, Murray K, Coy KC. Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development 1997;68(2):263-277. Kochanska, G, Aksan, N. Children’s conscience and self-regulation. Journal of Personality 2006; 74(6); 1587-1617. Spinrad, TL, Eisenberg, N, Gaertner, B, Popp, T, Smith, CL, Kupfer, A, Greving, K, Liew, J, Hofer, C. Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers’ effortful control to children’s adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology 2 007; 43, 1170-1186. Spinrad, TL, Eisenberg, N, Silva, KM, Eggum, ND, Reiser, M, Edwards, A, Iyer, R, Kupfer, AS, Hofter, C, Smith, CL, Hayashi, A, & Gaertner, BM. Longitudinal relations among maternal behaviors, effortful control, and young children’s committed compliance. Developmental Psychology. In press. Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Spinrad TL. Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry 1998;9(4):241-273.

: Temperamental Effortful Control (Self-Regulation) | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development

Why is effortful processing important in psychology?

Using Encoding Smartly When it comes to studying, understanding how encoding, working memory, and long term memory works is a key factor in learning to study smarter. Encoding, getting information into the memory system, has many forms, including automatic and effortful.

• Effortful processing requires mental effort, and involves working with the text to learn a concept.
• For me, I find using effortful processing to be a good way to understand material and retain it better.
• For instance, just reading over my notes (automatic) doesn’t usually help me when studying for tests because I just forget what I read soon after.

However, with effortful processing, actively thinking information out and making connections to information enables me to better recall it because I’ve thought about it in a way I understand. Using visual imagery, creating mental pictures, is a useful form of effortful processing because A common way to study and learn information quickly involves maintenance rehearsal, repeating information over and over again.

• I do use this method to study for exams, but I often find that after the exam passes, I forget the information because it wasn’t stored in my long term memory.
• A better way to store information into LTM involves elaborative rehearsal, which is making information meaningful to convert it from STM into LTM.

I find this the best way to study because I can relate the information to other information I already know, and make connections between them. For instance, when I’m studying for an exam, I’ll try to think of words or situations that interest me and relate to the information I’m studying.

Is studying an example of effortful processing?

Our minds acquire this information through effortful processing: Studying, rehearsing, thinking about, and then storing information in long-term memory.

What are 3 examples of automatic processing?

Automatic processes – When examining the label “automatic” in social psychology, we find that some processes are intended, and others require recent conscious and intentional processing of related information. Automatic processes are more complicated than people may think.

Some examples of automatic processes include motor skills, implicit biases, procedural tasks, and priming. The tasks that are listed can be done without the need for conscious attention. That being said automatic effects fall into three classes: Those that occur prior to conscious awareness (preconscious); those that require some form of conscious processing but that produce an unintended outcome (postconscious); and those that require a specific type of intentional, goal directed processing (goal-dependent).

Preconscious automaticity requires only the triggering proximal stimulus event, and occur prior to or in the absence of any conscious awareness of that event. Because they occur without our conscious awareness they are unnoticeable, uncontrollable, and nearly effortless.

Postconscious automaticity depends on recent conscious experience for its occurrence. This postconscious influence on processing can be defined as the non-conscious consequences of conscious thought. The conscious experience may be intentional, or it may be unintentional, what is important is that the material be in awareness.

Most things we are aware of are driven by the environment, and one does not intend or control the flood of these perceptual experiences, yet they still result in postconscious effects. In other words, we need to consciously engage in something and depending on the experience we will unconsciously think, and or behave a certain way.

1. In the classic Bobo doll experiment a child watches a video of an adult acting aggressive towards a Bobo doll.
2. Later when the child is put in the room with that same doll, the child was more likely to also engage in that act, versus children who didn’t watch the video.
3. In a study participants were primed with the stereotype of professors by being told to imagine a typical professor for 5 min and to list (a conscious act) the behaviors, lifestyle, and appearance attributes of this typical professor.

After they were primed they had to perform a general knowledge task. The results were that the participants in the professor condition outperformed those in the control conditions (those not primed at all). Goal-dependent automaticity concerns skill and thought processes that require a goal to engage in them.

1. This process is much similar to postconscious in that it requires conscious awareness to be initiated, but after that it can be guided outside of awareness by the unconscious mind,
2. A good example would be driving a car: in order to drive a car, one needs to consciously have a goal to drive somewhere.

When engaged in driving (only with enough practice) one can operate the car almost entirely without conscious awareness. However, more attentional control and decision making are needed when introduced to novel (reference) situations like driving through an unfamiliar town.

Is working memory effortful?

Active maintenance of information in working memory (WM) is an essential but effortful cognitive process. Yet, the effortful nature of WM remains poorly understood.

What is an example of automatic and effortful processing?

Automatic occurs unconsciously (you are not aware of it). Examples include reading something and understanding it OR knowing your class schedule for the day. Effortful processing requires attention and awareness like when we study in class or memorize a poem.

What is encoding and effortful processing?

Glossary – acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music automatic processing: encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words effortful processing: encoding of information that takes effort and attention encoding: input of information into the memory system memory: system or process that stores what we learn for future use semantic encoding : input of words and their meaning visual encoding : input of images

What are the 3 types of working memory *?

The Multicomponent Working Memory Model – When one describes working memory, the multicomponent working memory model is undeniably one of the most prominent working memory models that is widely cited in literatures ( Baars and Franklin, 2003 ; Cowan, 2005 ; Chein et al., 2011 ; Ashkenazi et al., 2013 ; D’Esposito and Postle, 2015 ; Kim et al., 2015 ).

1. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a working memory model that revolutionized the rigid and dichotomous view of memory as being short or long-term, although the term “working memory” was first introduced by Miller et al. (1960),
2. The working memory model posited that as opposed to the simplistic functions of short-term memory in providing short-term storage of information, working memory is a multicomponent system that manipulates information storage for greater and more complex cognitive utility ( Baddeley and Hitch, 1974 ; Baddeley, 1996, 2000b ).

The three subcomponents involved are phonological loop (or the verbal working memory), visuospatial sketchpad (the visual-spatial working memory), and the central executive which involves the attentional control system ( Baddeley and Hitch, 1974 ; Baddeley, 2000b ).

It was not until 2000 that another component termed “episodic buffer” was introduced into this working memory model ( Baddeley, 2000a ). Episodic buffer was regarded as a temporary storage system that modulates and integrates different sensory information ( Baddeley, 2000a ). In short, the central executive functions as the “control center” that oversees manipulation, recall, and processing of information (non-verbal or verbal) for meaningful functions such as decision-making, problem-solving or even manuscript writing.

In Baddeley and Hitch (1974) ‘s well-cited paper, information received during the engagement of working memory can also be transferred to long-term storage. Instead of seeing working memory as merely an extension and a useful version of short-term memory, it appears to be more closely related to activated long-term memory, as suggested by Cowan (2005, 2008 ), who emphasized the role of attention in working memory; his conjectures were later supported by Baddeley (2010),

Is effortful processing a type of encoding?

Long-term Memory – Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago.

• In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive.
• It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time.
• Not all long-term memories are strong memories.

Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact— “What is the capital of the United States?”—or a procedure—”How do you ride a bike?”—but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner when you were on vacation in France last summer.

A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you recall the name of the restaurant. Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit ( ). Understanding the different types is important because a person’s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types.

Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory are used interchangeably.) Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke. If you are learning how to swim freestyle, you practice the stroke: how to move your arms, how to turn your head to alternate breathing from side to side, and how to kick your legs.

You would practice this many times until you become good at it. Once you learn how to swim freestyle and your body knows how to move through the water, you will never forget how to swim freestyle, even if you do not swim for a couple of decades. Similarly, if you present an accomplished guitarist with a guitar, even if he has not played in a long time, he will still be able to play quite well.

Declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. An example would be the question “what does argumentative mean?” Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts.

• Who was the first President of the United States?
• What is democracy?
• What is the longest river in the world?

Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced. The concept of episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972). Since then, Tulving and others have looked at scientific evidence and reformulated the theory.

Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about happenings in particular places at particular times, the what, where, and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis & Maguire, 2007). Can You Remember Everything You Ever Did or Said? Episodic memories are also called autobiographical memories.

Let’s quickly test your autobiographical memory. What were you wearing exactly five years ago today? What did you eat for lunch on April 10, 2009? You probably find it difficult, if not impossible, to answer these questions. Can you remember every event you have experienced over the course of your life—meals, conversations, clothing choices, weather conditions, and so on? Most likely none of us could even come close to answering these questions; however, American actress Marilu Henner, best known for the television show Taxi, can remember. Very few people can recall events in this way; right now, only 12 known individuals have this ability, and only a few have been studied (Parker, Cahill & McGaugh 2006). And although hyperthymesia normally appears in adolescence, two children in the United States appear to have memories from well before their tenth birthdays. Watch these Part 1 and Part 2 video clips on superior autobiographical memory from the television news show 60 Minutes, So you have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store some important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of storage when you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval,

This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your computer’s hard drive. Now it’s back on your desktop, and you can work with it again. Our ability to retrieve information from long-term memory is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to work, to knowing how to perform your job once you get there.

There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory storage system: recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues.

For example, you would use recall for an essay test. Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on recognition to help you choose the correct answer.

Here is another example. Let’s say you graduated from high school 10 years ago, and you have returned to your hometown for your 10-year reunion. You may not be able to recall all of your classmates, but you recognize many of them based on their yearbook photos.

• The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it’s just what it sounds like.
• It involves learning information that you previously learned.
• Whitney took Spanish in high school, but after high school she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish.
• Whitney is now 31, and her company has offered her an opportunity to work in their Mexico City office.

In order to prepare herself, she enrolls in a Spanish course at the local community center. She’s surprised at how quickly she’s able to pick up the language after not speaking it for 13 years; this is an example of relearning. Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.

• Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing.
• Storage is retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning.

The idea that information is processed through three memory systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S) model of memory. First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less than a second to a few seconds. Those stimuli that we notice and pay attention to then move into short-term memory (also called working memory).

• According to the A-S model, if we rehearse this information, then it moves into long-term memory for permanent storage.
• Other models like that of Baddeley and Hitch suggest there is more of a feedback loop between short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Long-term memory has a practically limitless storage capacity and is divided into implicit and explicit memory.

Finally, retrieval is the act of getting memories out of storage and back into conscious awareness. This is done through recall, recognition, and relearning. _ is another name for short-term memory.

1. sensory memory
2. episodic memory
3. working memory
4. implicit memory

C The storage capacity of long-term memory is _.

1. one or two bits of information
2. seven bits, plus or minus two
3. limited
4. essentially limitless

D The three functions of memory are _.

1. automatic processing, effortful processing, and storage
2. encoding, processing, and storage
3. automatic processing, effortful processing, and retrieval
4. encoding, storage, and retrieval

D Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory. Both are types of long-term memory. Explicit memories are memories we consciously try to remember and recall. Explicit memory is also called declarative memory and is subdivided into episodic memory (life events) and semantic memory (words, ideas, and concepts).

1. Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness; they are memories formed from behaviors.
2. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory and includes procedural memory as well as things learned through classical conditioning.
3. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, name and describe the three stages of memory.

According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory is processed in three stages. The first is sensory memory; this is very brief: 1–2 seconds. Anything not attended to is ignored. The stimuli we pay attention to then move into our short-term memory. Short-term memory can hold approximately 7 bits of information for around 20 seconds.

• Information here is either forgotten, or it is encoded into long-term memory through the process of rehearsal.
• Long-term memory is the permanent storage of information—its capacity is basically unlimited.
• Compare and contrast the two ways in which we encode information.
• Information is encoded through automatic or effortful processing.

Automatic processing refers to all information that enters long-term memory without conscious effort. This includes things such as time, space, and frequency—for example, your ability to remember what you ate for breakfast today or the fact that you remember that you ran into your best friend in the supermarket twice this week.

Is effortful processing affected by intelligence?

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Short-term memory is best described as memory of how to perform an activity, such as riding a bike memory of facts and general knowledge memory that can hold only a small amount of information memory of specific events memory of a surprising event Which of the following psychologists is best associated with studying the function of memory? Mary Whiton Calkins Hermann Ebbinghaus Erik Erikson Carl Rogers Carl Wernicke Which of the following statements about automatic processing or effortful processing is true? Effortful processing does not require conscious awareness Effortful processing makes other processing more difficult. Automatic processing requires little mental effort. Automatic processing does not improve with practice. Effortful processing is affected by intelligence. An example of using elaborative encoding to improve memory is Sam remembering which tree is the ginkgo by using the phrase “stinko ginkgo” because the fruit of the ginkgo tree smells bad Trevor remembering to buy milk at the grocery store by putting a note on the refrigerator Emilia remembering a new acquaintance’s name by silently repeating the name after learning it Arthur remembering to pick up a cake before leaving work by asking a coworker for a reminder at the end of the workday Diego remembering the meanings of Spanish vocabulary words by creating flash cards and studying them David was studying some important historical dates for a test. He noticed that the day and month of one of the dates was the same as his own birthday, and he tried to use that fact to help him remember the date for his test. What is David using to enhance his memory? Method of loci Self-reference Retroactive interference Overlearning The recency effect A teacher asks Yvonne to go to another classroom to get a student whom Yvonne has never met. As she walks, she repeats the student’s name to herself over and over to help her remember. Yvonne is boosting her memory by using elaborative rehearsal distributed learning maintenance rehearsal a mnemonic device imagery Jeanette is curious to see how many numbers she can hold in her mind at once. She asks her friend to test her on lists of random digits to see how many she can remember. Based on what is known about the average limits of short-term memory capacity, what is the most likely number of digits Jeanette will be able to remember? Two Seven Ten Eleven Twelve The fact that Lori finds herself thinking about dogs and other pets after seeing a cat is evidence that human memory is organized into an association network a hierarchy a mental set a schema mnemonics To remember a list of words, Jerry tries walking through his bedroom and making associations between words on the list and various areas he visits in his bedroom. Jerry is trying to improve his memory encoding by using distributed learning the method of loci maintenance retrieval echoic memory lateral inhibition Which of the following illustrates the primacy effect? Jason remembers the last two digits of his doctor’s phone number but not any other digits. Susan left her grocery list at home and can remember only the first two items on the list. Frederick thinks people are paying attention to him when they actually are not. Paul gets a reward every time he gets on the bus for school on time. When his son Freddie cries because he wants a candy bar, Mr. Dunbar gives the boy the candy to stop him from crying. An example of state-dependent memory is Tommy finding it easier to remember the materials on an exam while taking it because he was sad while studying for the exam Jeremy saying he knew his favorite football team was going to lose all along after they lost the game Josef remembering only the first five linking verbs during his English exam despite studying to remember the entire list Willow believing she is always sad when it rains despite her being sad sometimes when it is sunny George liking Francine more than when he had met her the first day of class after sitting next to her in class each week retrieved from the amygdala created in the thalamus retrieved from the cerebellum created in the hippocampus stored in the basal ganglia Which of the following scenarios is best explained by long-term potentiation? Erik and Harry don’t like each other when they are first assigned to the same a room during a class trip, but after spending a great deal of time together, they begin to like each other more. When Sophia first enters a dark room after coming in from outside, she can’t see anything, but her eyes adjust after a few minutes. At first, Benjamin needs to drink only a small amount of a caffeinated beverage to feel its effects, but after drinking it regularly for a while, he needs more to feel the same effects. Alan wants to stop studying to go to a party but stops himself by thinking about his future career. The first time Colleen tries to remember Leo’s name it takes her a long time, but over time she remembers it more quickly. A logical, systematic procedure for solving a problem is known as an algorithm an action potential an analogy a conditioned reflex a heuristic John went to the beach for vacation shortly after having watched a documentary film about shark attacks. Overestimating the possibility of encountering a shark in the water, he decided to spend the day sunbathing and reading instead of going for a swim. John’s reasoning can be explained through the availability heuristic the gambler’s fallacy source monitoring confirmation bias counterfactual thinking A researcher wanted to test the psychometric properties of a new intelligence test for children. She administered the test twice, two months apart, to children in a fourth-grade classroom. On the second administration, she noticed that the children who performed well were not the same children who performed well on the first administration and that there appeared to be no relationship between student performance on the first and second administration of the test. Based on this scenario, the psychological construct missing from this intelligence test is test-retest reliability, because the researcher is administering the same test twice test-retest reliability, because the researcher is administering equivalent forms of the test twice split-half reliability, because the researcher is administering the same test twice split-half reliability, because the researcher is administering equivalent forms of the same test twice internal-consistency reliability, because the researcher is administering the same test twice What is the worst way to form long term memories? Having a strong emotional experience to a memory. Spaced Practice Elaborative Rehearsal Mass Practice Elizabeth Loftus did work related to accurate memories being found during hypnosis Constructive memory processing Finding memory traces or engrams. Holding 7 bits of information in STM (+ or – 2) The process of getting information into memory is called_ priming chunking encoding storing The human capacity for storing long-term memories is roughly equal to seven units of information enhanced through hypnosis essentially unlimited typically much greater in young children than in adults Exceptionally clear memories of emotionally significant events are called repressed memories. sensory memories mood-congruent memories flashbulb memories visually encoded images in long-term memory the encoded meanings of words and events in short-term memory photographic, or picture-image, memory that lasts for only a few tenths of a secon If information that has been stored in memory is not used for an extended period of time, what will most likely happen to that memory? Encoding Failure Retrieval Failure Retrograde Interference Storage Decay Anterograde Amnesia Which type of amnesia keeps us from remembering information from the first 2-3 years of our lives? Anterograde Retrograde Infantile Iconic Echoic Pablo vainly searches for a screwdriver while failing to recognize that a readily available coin in his pocket would turn the screw. His oversight best illustrates: functional fixedness. the availability heuristic. belief perseverance. the representativeness heuristic. Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to: Allow preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning Cling to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Search randomly through alternative solutions when problem solving Look for information that is consistent with one’s beliefs When the word “oat” is changed to the word “boat,” the number of: Phonemes increases, but the number of morphemes stays the same Phonemes and morphemes are both increased Phonemes and morphemes both stay the same Phonemes stays the same, but the number of morphemes increases Rudy is 6 feet tall, weighs 210 pounds, and is very muscular. If you think that Rudy is more likely to be a basketball player than a computer programmer, you are a victim of: Belief bias The availability heuristic A mental set The representativeness heuristic Advertisers know that a thirty-three percent discount sounds like a better deal than a discount of one third. This best illustrates: framing. belief bias. representativeness heuristics. confirmation bias. During her psychology test, Kelsey could not remember the meaning of the term proactive interference. Surprisingly, however, she accurately remembered that the term appeared on the fourth line of a left-hand page in her textbook. Her memory of this incidental information is best explained in terms of automatic processing. priming. the serial position effect. the spacing effect. Which of the following is not one of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences? practical musical interpersonal spatial Spearman argued that intelligence could be boiled down to one ability known as Spatial Intelligence Introverted Intelligence General Intelligence Extroverted Intelligence actual age x grade / 100 mental age x actual age mental age / actual age x 100 actual age / mental age x 100 A person with lower than average intelligence who has an amazing, unusual mental skill is known as a genius savant prodigy nerd The Flynn effect is the finding that intelligence seems to increase with every generation. television has decreased intellectual performance. linguistic skills decline with age. the more times people take a test, the better they tend to score. The WAIS was designed for testing _ intelligence, whereas the WISC was designed for testing _ intelligence. interpersonal; intrapersonal practical; creative adults’; children’s analytical; emotional Expore all questions with a free account Already have an account?

How can effortful processing become automatic?

How can effortful processing become automatic overtime? with lots of experience and practice, you can achieve automatic processing.

What is effortful control and why is it important to self regulation?

Effortful control, attentional control and working memory underpin successful learning – Children with movement difficulties (DCD, joint hypermobility, learning difficulties) often have poor self regulation and executive skills which impacts on their ability to learn new skills and perform activities that require physical effort and persistence. Effortful control is a dimension of temperament that includes the ability to manage attention and inhibit (inhibitory control) or activate (activational control) to adapt behaviour as needed, especially when a child does not particularly want to do so. Effortful control (EC), defined as “the efficiency of executive attention, including the ability to inhibit a dominant response and/or to activate a subdominant response, to plan, and to detect errors” (Rothbart and Bates 2006) In the second year, children begin to develop the ability to suppress a predominant action—often the one the child most desires at the moment—and to perform instead a subdominant response, often mundane or unappealing but required by socialization agents. The amount of inhibitory or activational control a child needs to exert depends on the child’s general level of arousal and tendency to avoid or approach situations that are novel, difficult or exciting. In children with a strong drive to approach and try-out new and interesting things, effortful control is needed to moderate this tendency in situations where it hampers the child’s attempts to master a task. Avoidant behaviour is often seen in children with behavioural inhibition as a temperament trait. Fearfulness in the face of novelty or complexity is seen in children with very active emotional fear systems. The term “highly sensitive child” is an alternative term that has become part of everyday lexicon. See Higly sensitive child learning movement skills These children are easily aroused by novelty, in situations where they are uncertain or have had a previous negative experience, and respond with a tendency to freeze and refuse to do a task. This is often perceived a stubbornness or willfulness. It is important to realise that the child’s response is a way of coping with anxiety and the unpleasant sensations associated with fearful arousal. Read more about the very cautious child and the learning of movement skills Emotion regulation: is defined as “the process of initiating, maintaining, modulating, or changing the occurrence, intensity, or duration of internal feeling states and emotion-related motivations and physiological processes, often in the service of accomplishing one’s goals” (Eisenberg and Spinrad 2004). Mechanisms involved in emotion regulation include: attentional processes (e.g., attention shifting and focusing), cognitive constructions or appraisals overt behaviors such as inhibiting movement toward an evocative object). Executive attention: refers to the ability to regulate responses, particularly in situations that require thinging about the task, and in situations where several responses are possible. This aspect of attention is thought to develop until early adulthood but seems to undergo a particularly rapid development between 2 and 7 years of age. Working memory : is the ability to hold goal relevant information in mind in the presence of potential distractions, in order to guide action. Baddely propsed a 3 component limited capacity system allowing the temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary for such complex tasks as comprehension, learning and reasoning (Baddeley 2000) The model comprised an attentional control system, the ‘central executive’, aided by two subsidiary slave systems, the ‘phonological loop’ and the ‘visuospatial sketchpad’, The phonological loop is assumed to hold verbal and acoustic information using a temporary store and an articulatory rehearsal system. The sketchpad is assumed to hold visuospatial information, to be fractionable into separate visual, spatial and possibly kinaesthetic components. (Baddeley 2000) The model also includes an episodic buffer which is “assumed to be capable of storing information in a multi-dimensional code. It thus provides a temporary interface between the slave systems (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad) and LTM. It is assumed to be controlled by the central executive, which is responsible for binding information from a number of sources into coherent episodes”.

What is an example of controlled processing in psychology?

Some other examples of controlled processing include the first time a person drives a car, writing a letter to a friend, and answering interview questions. Automatic processing does not require us to pay attention, nor do we have to deliberately put in effort to control automatic processes.

What are the components of effortful attention?

Latent Growth Models – Four latent growth models were estimated in M plus version 7.11. Model 1 was to examine change in shyness across 42, 54, 72, and 84 months. Model 2 was to examine prediction of the shyness intercept and slope from the 42-month EC composite. Model 3 was to examine unique prediction of the shyness intercept and slope from 42-month EC components – attention focusing, attention shifting, and inhibitory control. Activational control was measured at 72 months; thus, it did not make sense to predict the intercept or slope from activational control because this would involve predicting backward in time. Therefore, the correlations of activational control and the shyness intercept and slope were examined in model 4. FIML estimation was used for growth models; it handles missing data under the Missing at Random assumption. Participants with missing data on observed exogenous variables are omitted by default in M plus, Fit indices indicated that all models adequately reproduced the observed variance/covariance matrices and mean vectors. All chi-square tests of model fit were non-significant. See notes on the figures for the chi-square test, RMSEA, and SRMR for each model. CFI values were hand-calculated based on comparisons with intercept-only null models (with the appropriate EC variable included in the model but uncorrelated with the intercept), which is more appropriate for growth models than the default null model ( Widaman & Thompson, 2003 ). All model parameter estimates of interest and significance levels are presented in the figures. Statistically significant estimates of interest also are discussed below. See Figure 1 for the unconditional shyness growth model specification, fit statistics, and estimates. The intercept and slope means suggest that children’s shyness tended to start at 3.518 at 42 months and significantly decreased,134 point per year. Model-implied means showed children’s average shyness decreased from 3.518 at 42 months to 3.051 at 84 months (3 = less than half the time and 4 = about half the time ). There was significant variability in the intercept and slope, indicating individual differences in the intercept of children’s shyness trajectories and in their rates of change. The intercept was negatively correlated with the slope; thus, children who had higher initial shyness levels decreased faster over time than children who had lower initial shyness levels. R-square values (all >,72) indicated that the latent trajectory accounted for over 70% of the variability in shyness at each time point. The means residuals suggested that the linear trajectory closely reproduced the data. Unconditional growth model of shyness. Residual variances of shyness were not constrained equal and were specified as being uncorrelated. Unstandardized estimates and 95% confidence intervals are presented. Completely standardized estimates are in parentheses.

Χ 2 ( N = 213; df = 5) = 9.63, p =,09, RMSEA =,07, adjusted CFI =,92, and SRMR =,04. * p ≤,05. ** p ≤,01. *** p ≤,001. Sex differences in the shyness trajectory were not hypothesized, but were examined. Two multiple-group latent growth models were estimated. In the first model, the intercept mean, slope mean, intercept variance, slope variance, and intercept/slope covariance were estimated for boys and girls.

In the second model, these estimates were constrained equal for boys and girls. Difference testing, χ 2 Δ(5) = 9.57, p =,09, indicated invariance of the estimates. The average trajectory and the size of individual differences in the shyness trajectory did not differ by sex. Shyness growth models predicted from 42-month effortful control composite. Loadings for intercept were all set at 1.0. Loadings for linear slope were set at 0.0, 1.0, 2.5, and 3.5 for 42-, 54-, 72-, and 84-month indicators, respectively. Unstandardized estimates and 95% confidence intervals are presented.

Completely standardized estimates are in parentheses. χ 2 ( N = 205; df = 7) = 9.65, p =,21, RMSEA =,04, adjusted CFI =,95, and SRMR =,04. * p ≤,05. ** p ≤,01. *** p ≤,001. Then a model was estimated in which the shyness intercept and slope were regressed on mean-centered 42-month attention focusing, attention shifting, and inhibitory control.

See Figure 3 for model specification, fit statistics, and estimates. Attention focusing did not significantly predict the shyness intercept or slope. Attention shifting significantly predicted the shyness intercept and slope. Controlling for attention focusing and inhibitory control, a 1-unit increase in 42-month attention shifting was associated with a,661–unit decrease in 42-month model-predicted shyness, but was associated with a,116–unit increase (indicating slower decline/more stability) in change in shyness per year ( Figure 4 ).

Thus, children with high attention shifting had lower shyness than children with low attention shifting and, probably because they were so low, their decline in shyness was less marked. Inhibitory control significantly predicted the shyness intercept and slope. Controlling for attention focusing and attention shifting, a 1-unit increase in 42-month inhibitory control was associated with a,595–unit increase in 42-month model-predicted shyness, but was associated with a,113–unit decrease in change in shyness per year (see Figure 5 ).

Thus, children with high inhibitory control had higher initial, but more rapidly declining, shyness than children with low inhibitory control (note, however, that their level of shyness remained higher than that of low inhibitory control children). The 42-month EC components accounted for a modest percentage of variability in the intercept (13.1%) and slope (12.5%). Shyness growth models predicted from 42-month attention focusing, attention shifting, and inhibitory control. Loadings for intercept were all set at 1.0. Loadings for linear slope were set at 0.0, 1.0, 2.5, and 3.5 for 42-, 54-, 72-, and 84-month indicators, respectively. Shyness trajectories at three levels of attention shifting ( N = 205). Shyness trajectories at three levels of inhibitory control ( N = 205). A model was estimated in which the shyness intercept and slope were allowed to covary with 72-month activational control ( Figure 6 ). Activational control at 72 months was significantly negatively correlated with 42-month model-predicted shyness ( r = −.185), but was not significantly correlated with model-predicted change in shyness per year. Shyness growth model and activational control. Loadings for intercept were all set at 1.0. Loadings for linear slope were set at 0.0, 1.0, 2.5, and 3.5 for 42-, 54-, 72-, and 84-month indicators, respectively. Unstandardized estimates and 95% confidence intervals are presented.

What does effortful processing occur with?

Cognition – AP Psychology 3 In 1968, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain memory-processing. According to their proposed model, information will ultimately be processed into _ for later retrieval. Possible Answers: Correct answer: Long-term memory Explanation : Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain the memory forming process.

This included in order: 1. Recording to-be remembered information as sensory memory. This is when external events cause a sensory input (stimulus). It’s this fleeting occurrence that will be processed as a sensory memory.2. Information is then processed into short-term memory. At this time, the information is encoded into our brains through rehearsal,3.

For future retrieval, information then moves into long-term memory. This model has been updated since Atkinson and Shiffrin’s time by other psychologists to now include working memory and automatic processing. Working memory is the middle ground for processing.

1. It may be thought to occur at the same time as short-term memory processing.
2. At this time, information is merely actively (working) processed while short-term memory processes it to be sent to long-term memory.
3. Automatic processing is the direct pathway by which external events are automatically processed into long-term memory.

Researchers Alan Baddeley and colleagues challenged Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s three-stage model for memory processing regarding sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Their focus was on the active “desktop” of the brain responsible for taking new input and linking it to long-term memories.

This middle process is known as _, Possible Answers: Correct answer: Working memory Explanation : Baddeley and colleagues disagreed with Shiffrin and Atkinson’s idea about short-term memory. Shiffrin and Atkinson viewed short-term memory to be a brief “holding” shelf for information as it is passed along to long-term memory.

Baddeley and colleagues discovered this to be incorrect. Short-term memory isn’t just a temporary passing stage to hold information, but it is an active desktop where information is actively processed. This middle stage is responsible for linking incoming information with previously stored information.

• This added to Shiffrin and Atkinson’s model for memory processing by replacing/combining the short-term memory stage with working memory.
• Here information from sensory memory is stored and processed by maintenance and rehearsal.
• Eventually the information will be ready to be encoded into long-term memory.

Given the following options, which is the best-described difference between declarative and non-declarative memories? Possible Answers: Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require effortless processing. Declarative memories require implicit processing while non-declarative memories require explicit processing.

• Declarative memories require explicit processing while non-declarative memories require implicit processing.
• Declarative memories are part of the dual-track memory while non-declarative memories are part of the single-track memory.
• Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require automatic processing.

Correct answer: Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require automatic processing. Explanation : Our minds operate on a two-track system; this is also known as dual-track memory. This system operates with us consciously processing information (effortful processing) while there is also information behind the scenes that is automatically processed into storage (automatic processing).

Conscious processing occurs for declarative (explicit) memories. These are memories that we consciously aware of, such as facts and experiences we focus on. Automatic processing occurs for the experiences and occurrences we are not aware of. These memories are known as non-declarative, or implicit, memories.

These memories skip our conscious encoding and go directly to storage. _ records momentary images or the echo of a sound. Possible Answers: Correct answer: Sensory memory Explanation : Sensory memory is the beginning to memory processing. Upon sensory stimuli (input), the information will be stored as a fleeting sensory memory, which will soon be encoded into short-term/working memory.

From this middle stage, the information will be rehearsed and maintained until it is encoded into long-term memory/storage. Sensory memory is exactly what it sounds like – memory that pertains to stimuli observed by the senses. Sensory memory may be divided into echoic memory and iconic memory. Echoic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli.

Iconic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for visual stimuli. What is the difference between echoic and iconic memory? Possible Answers: Iconic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus.

Iconic memory plays an important role in sensory memory while echoic memory is important for long-term memory. Iconic memory is active before echoic memory. Echoic memory is crucial for the working memory while iconic memory plays an important role for short-term memory. Iconic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus.

Correct answer: Iconic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus. Explanation : Sensory memory is memory that pertains to stimuli observed by the senses. Sensory memory may be divided into echoic memory and iconic memory.

1. Echoic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli, where the echo of a sound will be encoded into memory.
2. Iconic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for visual stimuli, where an image will be encoded into memory.
3. Sensory memory is the beginning to memory processing.
4. Upon sensory stimuli (input), the information will be stored as a fleeting sensory memory, which will soon be encoded into short-term/working memory.

From this middle stage, the information will be rehearsed and maintained until it is encoded into long-term memory/storage. Given that both iconic and echoic memory play similar roles for sensory memory, it would be incorrect to initially deduce that one plays a greater role in the different stages of memory processing than the other.

1. Which of the following is not an effortful processing strategy? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Iconic sensory input Explanation : Chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice may seem familiar as studying techniques.
2. These are in fact effortful processing strategies that will aid in remembering new information.

Chunking is the strategy by which we organize information into familiar units; this is often automatically done. Mnemonics aid with memory via techniques that use vivid imagery or organizational devices. A well-known example of a mnemonic device is “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” for mathematical order of operations (PEMDAS).

1. Hierarchies are a little like chunking, but the individual will remember a few broad concepts that will be divided into narrower and narrower concepts.
2. This is a strategy that enables us to organize information.
3. Distributed practice is merely spacing our encoding over a period of time.
4. This revisit the familiar idea of it being more beneficial to space out study time over a few days or weeks as opposed to “cramming” the night before a test.

Iconic sensory input would not be a strategy for effortful processing because it is part of memory processing. This is the stimulus that will register as a fleeting sensory iconic (visual) memory. This information does not necessarily have to be processed through effortful processing as a declarative memory.

1. This information may be processed as non-declarative memory through automatic processing as it may have been information we were not consciously aware of.
2. In this case, the information would be automatically processed into long-term memory, skipping short-term and working memory.
3. In school, Tim learned the basics of Spanish grammar; however, after learning this new information, Tim cannot seem to recall the French he learned several months ago.

Which of the following could be causing Tim’s inability to recall past learning? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Retroactive interference Explanation : Retroactive interference is when newly learned information causes people to forget old information.

Thomas has a biochemistry exam as well as a rather difficult physics assignment due tomorrow. He decides to finish the physics assignment first and spend the rest of the night (and possibly the morning) studying for biochemistry. Which of the following is Thomas trying to avoid by prioritizing his school tasks in this particular way? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Retroactive interference Explanation : Thomas decides to finish his physics homework before starting his long night of biochemistry studying because he does not want any of the material from his physics assignment to interfere with the concepts he has to study for his biochemistry exam.

In doing so, Thomas avoids retroactive interference, which occurs when learning new information makes it harder to recall something learned earlier. If Thomas had studied biochemistry before doing his physics assignment, then there would be an increased probability that the physics assignment might obscure his knowledge of the biochemistry concepts he had studied beforehand.

What is effortful processing (with regards to encoding memory)? Possible Answers: When we experience cognitive strain in trying to remember something. None of these answers is accurate. When we are emotionally processing a difficult event. When we must make a conscious effort to put something to memory.

When we make a conscious effort to remember something. Correct answer: When we must make a conscious effort to put something to memory. Explanation : Effortful processing occurs when something necessitates our conscious effort and attention to commit something to memory.

• This most often occurs with complex ideas or tasks and things that do not automatically catch our attention or may not immediately interest us.
• What is an example of the spacing effect? Possible Answers: None of these answers is accurate.
• Where things that are farther apart appear to be more similar.
• When we warp our memories with the passage of time.

When we remember something more clearly that happened a very long time ago. When we remember things from disturbed or chopped up study session as opposed to long ones with little breaks. Correct answer: When we remember things from disturbed or chopped up study session as opposed to long ones with little breaks. Lowell Certified Tutor Brigham Young University-Provo, Bachelor of Education, Social Science Teacher Education. Western Governors University, Master. Natkai Certified Tutor Radford University, Bachelor of Science, Psychology. Catholic University of America, Master of Arts, Psychology. Mary-Lynne Certified Tutor Faulkner University, Bachelor of Science, Sports Studies. Jackson State University, Master of Science, Sports Studies. If you’ve found an issue with this question, please let us know. With the help of the community we can continue to improve our educational resources.

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What does effortful processing require a lot of?

It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is known as effortful processing.

What is necessary for effortful processing to occur?

Effortful processing requires attention and awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or new lines for a play.

What are 3 examples of automatic processing?

Automatic processes – When examining the label “automatic” in social psychology, we find that some processes are intended, and others require recent conscious and intentional processing of related information. Automatic processes are more complicated than people may think.

1. Some examples of automatic processes include motor skills, implicit biases, procedural tasks, and priming.
2. The tasks that are listed can be done without the need for conscious attention.
3. That being said automatic effects fall into three classes: Those that occur prior to conscious awareness (preconscious); those that require some form of conscious processing but that produce an unintended outcome (postconscious); and those that require a specific type of intentional, goal directed processing (goal-dependent).

Preconscious automaticity requires only the triggering proximal stimulus event, and occur prior to or in the absence of any conscious awareness of that event. Because they occur without our conscious awareness they are unnoticeable, uncontrollable, and nearly effortless.

• Postconscious automaticity depends on recent conscious experience for its occurrence.
• This postconscious influence on processing can be defined as the non-conscious consequences of conscious thought.
• The conscious experience may be intentional, or it may be unintentional, what is important is that the material be in awareness.

Most things we are aware of are driven by the environment, and one does not intend or control the flood of these perceptual experiences, yet they still result in postconscious effects. In other words, we need to consciously engage in something and depending on the experience we will unconsciously think, and or behave a certain way.

In the classic Bobo doll experiment a child watches a video of an adult acting aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Later when the child is put in the room with that same doll, the child was more likely to also engage in that act, versus children who didn’t watch the video. In a study participants were primed with the stereotype of professors by being told to imagine a typical professor for 5 min and to list (a conscious act) the behaviors, lifestyle, and appearance attributes of this typical professor.

After they were primed they had to perform a general knowledge task. The results were that the participants in the professor condition outperformed those in the control conditions (those not primed at all). Goal-dependent automaticity concerns skill and thought processes that require a goal to engage in them.

• This process is much similar to postconscious in that it requires conscious awareness to be initiated, but after that it can be guided outside of awareness by the unconscious mind,
• A good example would be driving a car: in order to drive a car, one needs to consciously have a goal to drive somewhere.

When engaged in driving (only with enough practice) one can operate the car almost entirely without conscious awareness. However, more attentional control and decision making are needed when introduced to novel (reference) situations like driving through an unfamiliar town.

What are four effortful processing strategies?

Memory – AP Psychology 3 In 1968, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain memory-processing. According to their proposed model, information will ultimately be processed into _ for later retrieval. Possible Answers: Correct answer: Long-term memory Explanation : Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain the memory forming process.

This included in order: 1. Recording to-be remembered information as sensory memory. This is when external events cause a sensory input (stimulus). It’s this fleeting occurrence that will be processed as a sensory memory.2. Information is then processed into short-term memory. At this time, the information is encoded into our brains through rehearsal,3.

For future retrieval, information then moves into long-term memory. This model has been updated since Atkinson and Shiffrin’s time by other psychologists to now include working memory and automatic processing. Working memory is the middle ground for processing.

It may be thought to occur at the same time as short-term memory processing. At this time, information is merely actively (working) processed while short-term memory processes it to be sent to long-term memory. Automatic processing is the direct pathway by which external events are automatically processed into long-term memory.

Researchers Alan Baddeley and colleagues challenged Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s three-stage model for memory processing regarding sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Their focus was on the active “desktop” of the brain responsible for taking new input and linking it to long-term memories.

1. This middle process is known as _,
2. Possible Answers: Correct answer: Working memory Explanation : Baddeley and colleagues disagreed with Shiffrin and Atkinson’s idea about short-term memory.
3. Shiffrin and Atkinson viewed short-term memory to be a brief “holding” shelf for information as it is passed along to long-term memory.

Baddeley and colleagues discovered this to be incorrect. Short-term memory isn’t just a temporary passing stage to hold information, but it is an active desktop where information is actively processed. This middle stage is responsible for linking incoming information with previously stored information.

This added to Shiffrin and Atkinson’s model for memory processing by replacing/combining the short-term memory stage with working memory. Here information from sensory memory is stored and processed by maintenance and rehearsal. Eventually the information will be ready to be encoded into long-term memory.

Given the following options, which is the best-described difference between declarative and non-declarative memories? Possible Answers: Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require effortless processing. Declarative memories require implicit processing while non-declarative memories require explicit processing.

Declarative memories require explicit processing while non-declarative memories require implicit processing. Declarative memories are part of the dual-track memory while non-declarative memories are part of the single-track memory. Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require automatic processing.

Correct answer: Declarative memories require conscious processing while non-declarative memories require automatic processing. Explanation : Our minds operate on a two-track system; this is also known as dual-track memory. This system operates with us consciously processing information (effortful processing) while there is also information behind the scenes that is automatically processed into storage (automatic processing).

Conscious processing occurs for declarative (explicit) memories. These are memories that we consciously aware of, such as facts and experiences we focus on. Automatic processing occurs for the experiences and occurrences we are not aware of. These memories are known as non-declarative, or implicit, memories.

These memories skip our conscious encoding and go directly to storage. _ records momentary images or the echo of a sound. Possible Answers: Correct answer: Sensory memory Explanation : Sensory memory is the beginning to memory processing. Upon sensory stimuli (input), the information will be stored as a fleeting sensory memory, which will soon be encoded into short-term/working memory.

From this middle stage, the information will be rehearsed and maintained until it is encoded into long-term memory/storage. Sensory memory is exactly what it sounds like – memory that pertains to stimuli observed by the senses. Sensory memory may be divided into echoic memory and iconic memory. Echoic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli.

Iconic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for visual stimuli. What is the difference between echoic and iconic memory? Possible Answers: Iconic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus.

1. Iconic memory plays an important role in sensory memory while echoic memory is important for long-term memory.
2. Iconic memory is active before echoic memory.
3. Echoic memory is crucial for the working memory while iconic memory plays an important role for short-term memory.
4. Iconic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus.

Correct answer: Iconic memory is a momentary memory of a visual stimulus and echoic memory is a momentary memory of an auditory stimulus. Explanation : Sensory memory is memory that pertains to stimuli observed by the senses. Sensory memory may be divided into echoic memory and iconic memory.

Echoic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli, where the echo of a sound will be encoded into memory. Iconic memory relates to a fleeting sensory memory for visual stimuli, where an image will be encoded into memory. Sensory memory is the beginning to memory processing. Upon sensory stimuli (input), the information will be stored as a fleeting sensory memory, which will soon be encoded into short-term/working memory.

From this middle stage, the information will be rehearsed and maintained until it is encoded into long-term memory/storage. Given that both iconic and echoic memory play similar roles for sensory memory, it would be incorrect to initially deduce that one plays a greater role in the different stages of memory processing than the other.

1. Which of the following is not an effortful processing strategy? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Iconic sensory input Explanation : Chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice may seem familiar as studying techniques.
2. These are in fact effortful processing strategies that will aid in remembering new information.

Chunking is the strategy by which we organize information into familiar units; this is often automatically done. Mnemonics aid with memory via techniques that use vivid imagery or organizational devices. A well-known example of a mnemonic device is “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” for mathematical order of operations (PEMDAS).

• Hierarchies are a little like chunking, but the individual will remember a few broad concepts that will be divided into narrower and narrower concepts.
• This is a strategy that enables us to organize information.
• Distributed practice is merely spacing our encoding over a period of time.
• This revisit the familiar idea of it being more beneficial to space out study time over a few days or weeks as opposed to “cramming” the night before a test.

Iconic sensory input would not be a strategy for effortful processing because it is part of memory processing. This is the stimulus that will register as a fleeting sensory iconic (visual) memory. This information does not necessarily have to be processed through effortful processing as a declarative memory.

This information may be processed as non-declarative memory through automatic processing as it may have been information we were not consciously aware of. In this case, the information would be automatically processed into long-term memory, skipping short-term and working memory. In school, Tim learned the basics of Spanish grammar; however, after learning this new information, Tim cannot seem to recall the French he learned several months ago.

Which of the following could be causing Tim’s inability to recall past learning? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Retroactive interference Explanation : Retroactive interference is when newly learned information causes people to forget old information.

1. Thomas has a biochemistry exam as well as a rather difficult physics assignment due tomorrow.
2. He decides to finish the physics assignment first and spend the rest of the night (and possibly the morning) studying for biochemistry.
3. Which of the following is Thomas trying to avoid by prioritizing his school tasks in this particular way? Possible Answers: Correct answer: Retroactive interference Explanation : Thomas decides to finish his physics homework before starting his long night of biochemistry studying because he does not want any of the material from his physics assignment to interfere with the concepts he has to study for his biochemistry exam.

In doing so, Thomas avoids retroactive interference, which occurs when learning new information makes it harder to recall something learned earlier. If Thomas had studied biochemistry before doing his physics assignment, then there would be an increased probability that the physics assignment might obscure his knowledge of the biochemistry concepts he had studied beforehand.

What is effortful processing (with regards to encoding memory)? Possible Answers: When we experience cognitive strain in trying to remember something. None of these answers is accurate. When we are emotionally processing a difficult event. When we must make a conscious effort to put something to memory.

When we make a conscious effort to remember something. Correct answer: When we must make a conscious effort to put something to memory. Explanation : Effortful processing occurs when something necessitates our conscious effort and attention to commit something to memory.

This most often occurs with complex ideas or tasks and things that do not automatically catch our attention or may not immediately interest us. What is an example of the spacing effect? Possible Answers: None of these answers is accurate. Where things that are farther apart appear to be more similar. When we warp our memories with the passage of time.

When we remember something more clearly that happened a very long time ago. When we remember things from disturbed or chopped up study session as opposed to long ones with little breaks. Correct answer: When we remember things from disturbed or chopped up study session as opposed to long ones with little breaks. Deepa Certified Tutor SUNY at Albany, Bachelor in Arts, Biology, General. International American University College of Medicine, Doctor of Medicine. Lowell Certified Tutor Brigham Young University-Provo, Bachelor of Education, Social Science Teacher Education. Western Governors University, Master. Natkai Certified Tutor Radford University, Bachelor of Science, Psychology. Catholic University of America, Master of Arts, Psychology. If you’ve found an issue with this question, please let us know. With the help of the community we can continue to improve our educational resources.

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What are examples of automatic and effortful encoding?

Learning Objectives –

Explain the two major processes of encoding and the three different ways that we encode sensory information

Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time. Figure 1. Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function. We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system.

1. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it.
2. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts.
3. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.
4. If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily.

This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing. Figure 2, When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to start a car, how to brake, how to handle a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional information about this skill automatically.

1. The notes were sour because the seams split.
2. The voyage wasn’t delayed because the bottle shattered.
3. The haystack was important because the cloth ripped.

How well did you do? By themselves, the statements that you wrote down were most likely confusing and difficult for you to recall. Now, try writing them again, using the following prompts: bagpipe, ship christening (shattering a bottle over the bow of the ship is a symbol of good luck), and parachutist.

1. Next count backwards from 40 by fours, then check yourself to see how well you recalled the sentences this time.
2. You can see that the sentences are now much more memorable because each of the sentences was placed in context.
3. Material is far better encoded when you make it meaningful.
4. There are three types of encoding.

The encoding of words and their meaning is known as semantic encoding, It was first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment in which he asked people to memorize words. The 60 words were actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, although the participants did not know this because the words were randomly presented.

When they were asked to remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they learned them. Visual encoding is the encoding of images, and acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular. To see how visual encoding works, read over this list of words: car, level, dog, truth, book, value,

If you were asked later to recall the words from this list, which ones do you think you’d most likely remember? You would probably have an easier time recalling the words car, dog, and book, and a more difficult time recalling the words level, truth, and value,

Why is this? Because you can recall images (mental pictures) more easily than words alone. When you read the words car, dog, and book you created images of these things in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the other hand, abstract words like level, truth, and value are low-imagery words.

High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio, 1986), thus building a stronger memory. Now let’s turn our attention to acoustic encoding. You are driving in your car and a song comes on the radio that you haven’t heard in at least 10 years, but you sing along, recalling every word.

In the United States, children often learn the alphabet through song, and they learn the number of days in each month through rhyme: ” Thirty days hath September, / April, June, and November; / All the rest have thirty-one, / Save February, with twenty-eight days clear, / And twenty-nine each leap year.” These lessons are easy to remember because of acoustic encoding.

We encode the sounds the words make. This is one of the reasons why much of what we teach young children is done through song, rhyme, and rhythm. Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the best memory of verbal information? Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted a series of experiments to find out.

1. Participants were given words along with questions about them.
2. The questions required the participants to process the words at one of the three levels.
3. The visual processing questions included such things as asking the participants about the font of the letters.
4. The acoustic processing questions asked the participants about the sound or rhyming of the words, and the semantic processing questions asked the participants about the meaning of the words.

After participants were presented with the words and questions, they were given an unexpected recall or recognition task. Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered than those encoded visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of processing than the shallower visual or acoustic encoding.

1. Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect.
2. The self-reference effect is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance (Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977).

Could semantic encoding be beneficial to you as you attempt to memorize the concepts in this module?